
Class. 
Book. 



SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 



THE 



PRINCIPLES 



OF 



, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



PLAINLY ILLUSTRATED BT A SERIES OE 



FAMILIAR 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF 



TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 

BT 



IT EEV. E. B. PTTCKETT. 



C I IT C I N N A T I : 

PUBLISHED BT APPLEGATE <fc CO. 

1853. 



T£uu 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, 

By p, PUCKEIX 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, 

for the District of Middle Tennessee. 



STEREOTYPED BY T. WRIGHTSON, J '* 

12 W. Second Street, Cincinnati. "■■ \ 

, — X v 



PREFACE. 



Many attempts have been made to illustrate the principles 
of the Grammar of the English Language, and to adapt the 
subject of study to the capacity of learners ; and many sys- 
tems have been given ; all tending to the illustration 
of the same thing, though differing in the mode of elucida- 
tion, they all agree, in the main, as to the end to be accom- 
plished — a correct knowledge of the rules and regulations 
conducive to a proper development of thought and language. 

In the effort of each to explain and illustrate, he has taken 
up some favorite system or author, as a text book, which he 
endeavors, in his own phraseology, to explain and simplify ; 
in the doing of which, doubtless, many valuable improve- 
ments have been made and adopted into the general plan of 
English education ; the tendency of which has been, the cur- 
tailment of time, the lessening of the burden, and the re- 
moving, to some extent, of the tediousness, and the monotony 
of acquiring information, calculated to discipline the minds of 
the young for the business transactions of mature age : an 
object praiseworthy in itself, commendable in all, and pro- 
perly appreciated only by those actually engaged in the study. 

The author of the following treatise claims no originality 
in his production, except it be in the system or plan of illus- 
tration ; for, he considers himself indebted to others for all 
he assumes to know ; and for reference for what he offers in 
the following pages, he would mention the respectable names 



IV PREFACE. 

of Murray, Kirkham, Bullions, Butler, Clark, Wells, Brown, as 
authors of eminence and merit. Of these and all others ex- 
amined by him, he feels at liberty to say, without disparage- 
ment to the merit of any, that he considers Lindley Murray's 
Octavo Grammar of the English Language entitled to his 
largest share of commendation ; this profession of preference, 
will, he hopes, find a sufficient apology in the fact of Mur- 
ray's being an old, generally approved, and well established 
work, the correctness of which, it is presumed, no genuine 
Grammarian has ever doubted ; yet he takes pleasure in saying, 
that he is very much indebted to the authors named, for many 
useful and elegant examples, and illustrations copied, ver- 
batim, into the body of his work. 

If in any instances in the following pages, it may seem 
that there is a departure from established authority as regards 
the strict analysis of the language, it is hoped the seeming 
difference may be seen to be reconcilable by the difference in 
the manner of illustration, as well as by what the genius of the 
language, in its simplicity, requires^in close keeping with the 
common sense principle, upon which the rules and notes are 
based, and to explain which, the rules and notes are only 
necessary; for with this principle they must correspond. 
This consideration, it is believed, will fully explain away, and 
reconcile any supposed difference in analysis that may occur. 

From many years experience in teaching the English Gram- 
mar only, the author is satisfied that the system of teaching 
by familiar lectures, questions and answers, with copious ex- 
amples illustrative of the rules, &c, in connection also with 
parsing exercises in prose and poetry, strictly analyzed, is the 
most successful method of communicating a practical know- 
ledge of the science of the English language. And that it is 
attended with but a trifling expense of time, tuition, and books, 
and with far less perplexity to the pupil and teacher, in com- 
parison with the common method of requiring the pupil to me- 
morise and recite the greater portion of the book, perhaps 



PREFACE. V 

several times over, before he is enabled properly to analyze a 
single sentence ; when the sole object to be attained, is a know- 
ledge of the correct and strict analysis of the language. 

The primary object in the following production, has been to 
present to the mind of the pupil, the various points of analysis, 
in the plainest and simplest manner ; ridding the study of thfr 
grammar of the dryness and monotony, and consequent dislike 
attendant upon the tedious course ordinarily pursued ; and by 
interspersing it with a little humorous good-nature and advice, 
to incite him to the exercise of his own perceptive faculties, so 
highly necessary in comprehending the principles of the lan- 
guage ; and thereby to render the subject and progress of his 
studies both agreeable and interesting : without which, the 
study of the grammar is truly vexatious and often unavailing 
to the learner, and very far from being pleasant and encourag- 
ing to the teacher. 

The author is apprised that this preface is already extended 
beyond the proper limit ; but he cannot consent to dismiss the 
address without, at least, an expression of gratitude to those 
who have already so liberally patronized his humble effort in 
the cause of education ; and of his strongest hope and belief 
that that class of individuals for whom the work is designed, 
will find, as respects the elements of useful knowledge, a rich 
and ample reward in its careful perusal. 

The Author. 



ADDRESS TO THE PUPIL. 



As you are now about to commence the study of one of 
the most important branches of literature, it is reasonable to 
suppose you will give that careful attention and consideration 
which its importance demands. Unless you do this, allow me 
to say, you will make but little progress. All the books 
written upon this subject, and all the instruction that you 
could obtain from competent teachers, could not make you a 
grammarian, without the concurrence of your own will and 
effort to understand the principles necessary to be learned. 
Be not discouraged at the seemingly tedious task ; your wil- 
lingness to be taught, and your effort to comprehend the sub- 
ject, will render the study to you delightfully pleasing. 
Some may, indeed, tell you they were engaged for years with 
this branch of education, seemingly to little purpose. This 
may be very true, though, at the same time, it speaks but 
little to sustain the idea that they had been duly attentive to 
study. But let not this dissuade you from your purpose ; and 
by the way, endeavor to have something more gratifying to 
say of yourself after the lapse of a reasonable time. For 
your encouragement I will say, I have known many of the 
young and middle aged, who have acquired a tolerable know- 
ledge of English Grammar having devoted only a few months, 
or even weeks to the study. Can you not do so as well as 
they ? Surely you can. The will and the courage to try to 
understand, are all that are required of you. 



Till ADDRESS TO THE PUPIL, 

This book is not designed to be memorised : this however, 
is optional with yourself, or your teacher. To memorise it, 
or only those parts of it which your instructor may advise as 
being essential, would contribute to your advancement ; but in 
the absence of a competent instructor, I advise you, first, 
to read the book once or twice regularly through, and of- 
tener if you think fit. The tendency of thus reading it, will 
be to render the subject more familiar to you, and prepare the 
mind for after study. Having read as above, take up portions 
of the work in regular order, dwelling longest upon those 
items that strike your mind with strongest force ; and continue 
to investigate them until there be a sensible impression made 
upon your own mind, as to the sense and meaning intended 
to be conveyed. Begin with the introductory questions, &c, 
and proceed regularly through Orthography, Etymology and 
Syntax ; do this at least twice before you take up, properly, 
the subject of Prosody. It is not to be expected that you 
will at a glance or *wo, comprehend the full scope of all that 
is contained in the English Grammar ; but it is expected that 
you will, at every reviewal of the work, gain something in 
the way of information both useful and important to you in 
the development of the principles of language. Therefore be 
diligent, and as you read, endeavor to digest and properly ar- 
range such ideas as present themselves first, or most forcibly. 
These ideas (few or many), well understood, will greatly aid 
you in acquiring further information. So soon as you under- 
stand the modifications of the noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, 
and adverb, and the nature and influence of the other parts 
of speech, you may expect a rapid progress in the parsing 
exercises. A little practice and patience in the parsing exer- 
cises, after each perusal of Etymology and Syntax, will be of no 
disadvantage to you; you may, at the conclusion of each re- 
viewal, post up your account, so to speak, and examine your- 
self as to what you learned in the last perusal. 

The questions are designed to place directly before your 



ADDRESS TO THE PUPIL. [ x 

mind, the jjrinciples to be learned, and the answers are de- 
signed to teach you how to learn those principles. It de- 
volves upon you, therefore, to consider the purport of the 
questions as well as that of the answer and example. You 
might, possibly, ask many questions in reference to Grammar, 
but it is not at all likely that you would, without a previous 
knowledge of the science, ask such questions as would em- 
brace the ideas best adapted to illustrate the principles most 
necessary to be learned ; and for this reason, you are antici- 
pated, and suitable questions are proposed for your considera- 
tion. 

The course recommended above, it is hoped, will soon lead 
you to see and admire what to you now is, perhaps, dark and 
unmeaning. 

And now, my friend, I commend you to your task, hoping, 
yea, knowing that by your assiduity in accumulating know- 
ledge, it will prove to you both pleasing and profitable whilst 
engaged in the study, and eventually in regard to your intel- 
lect, a blessing lasting as the mind. 

»' Our needful knolwedge, like our needful food ; 
Unhedged, lies open in life's common field ; 
And bids all welcome to the vital feast." 

The Author. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, 



ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



INTRODUCTION. 



Question. — "What is Grammar? 
Answer. — Grammar is the Science of Language. 

Q. — What is Language? 

A. — Language is the medium through which we communi- 
cate our thoughts to one another. 

Q. — How is Language divided? 
A. — Language is divided into Natural, Artificial, Spoken and 
Written. 

Q. — What is Natural Language? 

A. — Natural Language consists in the use of those natural 
or instinctive signs which animals employ in the expression of 
thought and feeling, as by the modulation of the voice, pecu- 
liar gestures, features, &c. 

Q. — What is Artificial Language ? 

^..—Artificial Language consists in the use of articulate 
sounds called words, by means of which mankind are enabled 
to communicate their thoughts to each other. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — "What is Spoken Language? 

A. — Spoken Language, or speech, is the same as Artificial 
Language, for it consists in the use of words, or sounds ut- 
tered by the human voice to represent ideas, or thoughts 
passing in the mind. 

Q. — What is Written Language? 

A, — Written Language consists in the use of characters 
called letters, and hieroglyphics, or picture writing, which by 
common consent and general usage are so combined as to 
form the representatives of words uttered by the human voice. 

Q. — What is the standard of grammatical accu- 
racy in the use of Spoken and Written Language ? 

A. — Those forms and associations of words, either Written 
or Spoken, recognized and practised by those persons de- 
servedly in high estimation on account of their literary at- 
tainments, and distinguished as speakers and writers of cor- 
rect taste, solid matter, and refined manner, constitute the 
standard of grammatical accuracy of the language of the peo- 
ple by whom it is used. 

Q. — How is Grammar divided? 

A. — Grammar is divided into two parts, viz. : Universal and 
Particular. 

Q. — What is Universal Grammar? 

A. — Universal Grammar is the science of language in 
common ; or it is the science which explains the principles 
common to all languages. 

Q. — What is Particular Grammar? 

A. — Particular Grammar is the conformity to rule, by 
which the general principles of Universal Grammar are ap- 
plied to a particular language, modifying them according to 
its genius, and the standard of grammatical accuracy. 

Q. — What is English Grammar? 

^1. — English Grammar is the science of the English lan- 
guage ; or it is the art of speaking and writing the English 
Language with propriety. 

Q. — How is English Grammar divided? 

A. — English Grammar is divided into four parts, viz. : Or- 
thography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

Q. — Upon what do they treat, respectively ? 

A. — Orthography treats upon the nature and power of the 
letters of the English Alphabet; and the proper method of 
spelling words. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their va- 
rious modification and derivation. 

Syntax treats upon the agreement and government of 
words, and their proper arrangement in a sentence. 

Prosody treats of Pronunciation, Punctuation, and the 
laws of Versification. 



PART I. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

SECTION I. 

Q. — What does Orthography teach ? 

A. — Orthography teaches the nature and power of letters, 
and the just method of spelling words. 

Q. — How many letters are there in the English 
alphabet ? 

A. — Twenty-six, viz., abcdefghi jklmnopqrs 
t u v w x j z. 

Q.— How are they divided? 

A. — The letters are divided into vowels and consonants, 

Q. — What is a vowel ? 

A . — A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by a 
single impulse of the voice ; they are a, e, i, o, u; and some- 
times w and y. 

Q. — When are w and y vowels ? 

A . — W and y are consonants when they begin a word or 
syllable, but in every other situation they are vowels. 

Q. — What is a consonant? 

A. — A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded 
without the aid of a vowel; as, b, d, f, 1, all the letters except 
the vowels, are consonants. 

Q. — How are the consonants divided? 

A. — The consonants are divided into mutes, and semi-vowels. 



ORTHOGRAPHY SYLLABLES, 15 

Q. — -Why are they so called ? 

A. — A mute is a letter that cannot be sounded at all, with- 
out the aid of a vowel ; they are b, p, t, k, and c and g hard. 

A semi-vowel is a letter that has an imperfect sound of its 
own ; they are /, I, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. 
Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are called liquids 
on account of their readily uniting with other consonants, and 
flowing, as it were, into their sounds. 

Q. — What is a diphthong? 

A. — A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced 
by a single impulse of the voice ; as, ea in beat, ou in sound. 

Q. — What is a triphthong ? 

A. — A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced 
in like manner ; as, eau in beau ; iew in view 

Q. — What is a proper diphthong ? 

A. — A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels 
are sounded ; as, oi in voice ; ou in ounce ; and an improper 
diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea in eagle. 
oa in boat. 

Q. — How shall I obtain a knowledge of the 
elementary sounds of the letters of the alphabet ? 

A. — By a careful study of the elementary principles as 
taught in spelling-books and dictionaries. 

Note. — The elementary sounds of the letters of our alphabet, re- 
quire much careful study, and to illustrate them here, would occupy 
larger space than is allowable in this work. The author would suggest 
the importance of their being properly understood ; and request the 
pupil to consult the spelling-books and dictionaries of reputable authors, 
till he is fully acquainted with the elementary sounds. 



SECTION II. 

OF SYLLABLES AND THE RULES FOR AR- 
RANGING THEM. 

Q. — What is a syllable? 

A. — A syllable is a sound, either simple or compound, 
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constitutes a 
word, or part of a word ; as, a, an, ant, pen-knife, ta-ble. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — What is the first general rule for the di- 
vision of words into syllables? 

A. — Rule 1st. A single consonant between two vowels, 
must be joined to the latter syllable ; as, de-light, bri-dle; ex- 
cept the letter x, as ex-is t, and words compounded ; as, up-on 
un-even, &c. 

Q. — What is the second rule? 

A.-— Rule 2d. Two consonants proper to begin a word 
must not be separated ; as, fa-ble : but when they come be- 
tween two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they 
must be divided ; as, ut-most, er-ror, insect. 

Q. — What is the third rule ? 

A. — Rule 3d. When three consonants meet in the middle 
of a word, if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel 
be pronounced long, they are not to be separated; as, de- 
pone ; but when the vowel of the preceding syllable is pro- 
nounced short, one of the consonants always belongs to that 
syllable ; as, dis-tract, dis-prove. 

Q.—- What is the fourth rule ? 

A. — Rule 4th. When three or four consonants, which are 
not proper to begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such 
of them as can begin a syllable, belong to the latter, the rest 
of them, to the former syllable; as, abstain, corn-plain, con- 
tain. 

Q._ What is the fifth rule ? 

A, — Rule 5th. Two vowels not being a diphthong, must be 
divided into separate syllables ; as, cru-el, de-ni-al. 

Q.— -What is the sixth rule ? 

A . — -Rule 6th. Compound words must be traced into the 
simple words of which they are composed; as, ice-house, 
glow-worm, over -power* 

Q. — What is the seventh rule ? 

A. — Rule 7th. Grammatical and other particular termina- 
tions are generally separated ; as, teach-est 9 teach-eth, contend' 
est, wretch-ed, teach-ing, &c. 



ORTHOGRAPHY SPELLING. 17 

SECTION III. 

OF WORDS IN GENERAL. 

Q. — What is a word? 

A. — A word is an articulate sound, used by common con- 
sent as the sign of an idea. 

Q. — What is aii idea? 

A. — An idea is the image of a thing in the mind ; a thought, 
a word, is its representation, by which we impress, as it were, 
the same image upon other minds. 

Q. — How are words classed? 

A . — Into two classes, Primitive and Derivative. 

Q. — What is a Primitive word? 

A. — It is a word that cannot be reduced to a simpler word 
of its kind in the language ; as, man, good, content. 

Q. — What is a Derivative Word ? 

A. — It is a word that may be reduced to a simpler word of 
its kind in the language ; as, manful, goodness, contentment ; 
all compound words are classed with the derivatives ; as, pen- 
knife, ink-stand, &e. 

Q.-~ How are words otherwise classed ? 

A. — Words are otherwise thrown into four classes: 

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable : 

A Dyssyllable is a word of two syllables : 

A Trissyllable is a word of three syllables : and 

A Polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Q.— What is the first rule for spelling ? 

A. — Rule 1st. Monosyllables ending with f, 1, or s, pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, double the f, 1, or s; as, staff, mill, 
pass. The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, 
his, this, us, and thus. 

Q.~What is the second rule ? 

A. — Rule 2d. Monosyllables ending with any consonant, 
except f, 1, or s, and preceded by a single vowel, never 
double the final consonant; excepting, add, ebb, butt, egg, 
odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. 
J* 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q.~-What is the third rule? 

A, — Rule 3d. Words ending in y preceded by a conso- 
nant, form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, partici- 
pial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, 
by changing the y into i; as, spy, spies; I carry, thou carri- 
est, he carrieth, or carries ; carrier, carried ; happy, happier, 
happiest. 

The present participal retains the y that i may not be dou- 
bled ; as, carry, carrying. But y preceded by a vowel in such 
cases as the above, is not changed into i; as, boy, boys ; I 
cloy, he cloys; except in the words lay, pay, say ; from 
which are formed laid, paid, said, and their compounds, un- 
laid, unpaid, &c. 

<?.♦— What is the fourth rule ? 

A. — Rule 4th. Words ending in y preceded by a conso- 
nant, upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a 
consonant, commonly change y into i; as, happy, happiness. 
But when the y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely 
changed into i in the additional syllable ; as, joy, joyful, joy- 
less, &c. 

Q.— What is the fifth rule ? 

A. — Rule 5th. Monosyllables, and words accented on the 
last syllable, ending with a single consonant, which is prece- 
ded by a single vowel, double that consonant when they take 
another syllable beginning with a vowel; as, wit, witty ; thin, 
thinnish; to abet, abettor ; to begin, beginning. But if a 
diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last syllable, the 
consonant remains single; as, toil, toiling ; to offer, an offer- 
ing ; maid, maiden, &c. 

Q. — What is the sixth rule ? 

A. — Rule 6th. Words ending with any double letter but I, 
taking ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter 
double; as harmlessness, carelessly, successful, &c. But 
those words which end with double I, and take ness, less, ly 
or ful after them, generally omit one I ; as, full, fulness, 
skill, skilful, skilless. 

Q. — What is the seventh rule? 

^ # — Rule 7th. Ness, less, ly, ful, or ment, added to words 
ending with silent e, do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, 
closely, peaceful) abatement; except a few words; as due, duly; 



ORTHOGRAPHY SPELLING. 19 

true, truly; awe, awful; judge, judgment ; abridge, abridg- 
ment; acknowledge, acknowledgment ; and perhaps a few 
others. 

Q. — What is the eighth rule ? 

A. — Rule 8th. Able, ible, ing or ish added to words 
ending with silent e, almost always cut it off; as, blame, 
blamable; cure, curable; sense, sensible; place, placing; 
slave, slavish ; &c. But if c or g soft comes before e in the 
original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded 
with able; as, change, changeable; peace, peaceable. 

Q. — What is the ninth rule ? 

A. — Rule 9th. Words taken into composition, often drop 
those letters which were superfluous in the simple words ; as, 
handful, withal, chilblain. 



PAET II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

SECTION I. 
A GENERAL VIEW OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Q. — Of what does Etymology treat ? 

A. — Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their 
various modifications and derivations. 

Q. — What is meant by modification ? 

A. — A word is said to modify, or qualify, limit, or restrict 
another when its influence has a tendency to change or alter 
the meaning of that other word from what it would otherwise 
be, were it left alone. Words are also modified in assuming 
different forms as in the declension, comparison, conjugation 
&c; as well as by assuming different relations in regard to 
other words in the sentence. 

Q. — What is meant by derivation ? 

A. — A word is said to be derived from another, when it 
can be traced to a lower or simpler word of its kind. 

Q. — How many words are there supposed to 
be in the English language ? 

A. — The number of words in the English language, is vari- 
ously reckoned to he between forty and eighty thousand ; the 
latter number is thought to include proper names, and words 
formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives ; 
the former number, to exclude them. 



ETYMOLOGY PARTS OF SPEECH. 21 

Q. — How shall we form an acquaintance with 
so vast a multitude of words ? 

A. — By attending carefully to the classification, and the 
guides hereafter to be given, as rules of Etymology and 
Syntax. 

Q.-+- How are the words classed ? 

A. — The words of the English language are embraced in 
ten classes, or sorts, called parts of speech ; and, according to 
orderly arrangement, stand thus: 

1. Noun. 5. Verb. 8. Preposition. 

2. Article. 6. Participle. 9. Conjunction. 

3. Adjective. 7. Adverb. 

4. Pronoun. 10. Interjection. 

Q. — Why is this order, as to numbering the 
parts of speech, necessary f £ 

A. — The utility of the orderly arrangement will be seen 
and appreciated, when the definitions and offices of the ten 
parts of speech are explained ; for, by the order of arrange- 
ment, the ten parts are themselves so classed as to show more 
clearly their nature and offices. 

Q. — What is the definition of the noun ? 

A. — A noun is the name of any thing that can be known 
or mentioned ; as, man, tree, virtue, wisdom. A noun may be 
known by its making sense by itself; and also by its taking 
either of the articles; a, an, or the, before it; as, a man; an 
apple; the woman. 

2 

Q. — What is an article ? 

A. — An article is the word a, an, or the, placed before a 
noun to point it out, and to show how far its signification ex- 
tends ; as, a man ; the man ; an apple ; the apple ; the book ; 
or the books ; &c. 

3 

Q. — What is an adjective ? 

A. — An adjective is a word added to a noun, to express its 
quality, character, or kind ; or to restrict its meaning ; as, a 
good man ; a tall tree ; a sweet apple. An adjective may be 
known by its making sense with the word thing, or any other 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

noun right after it ; as, a good thing, a bad thing ; high, low, 
round, smooth, (fee. 

4 

Q, — What is a pronoun ? 

A. — A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent 
the too frequent use of the same word ; as, /, thou, he, she, it, 
we, ye, or you, and they ; as, the man is happy ; he is benevo- 
lent; he is useful. 

5 

Q. — What is a verb ? 

A. — -A verb is a word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer; 
as, I am, I rule, I am ruled. A verb may in general be known 
by its making sense with the word to before it ; as, to walk, to 
sing, to play, to fly. 

6 

Q. — What is a participle ? 

A. — A participle is a word derived from a verb, and partici- 
pates the nature of a verb and also the nature of an adjective ; 
and always refers to some noun or pronoun denoting its sub- 
ject or actor; as, "I saw a man walking by the door;" 
"John, having finished his lesson, retired ;"" The bow well 
forc^, &c. — ztt'ce seems already slain." 

7 

Q. — What is an adverb ? 

A. — An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, a, participle, 
an adjective, or sometimes another adverb : as, "he reads cor- 
rectly; I saw a man walking briskly; a truly good man; he 
writes very correctly :" An adverb may in general be known 
by its answering the question, how? when? where? or why ? 

8 

Q. — What is a preposition ? 

A. — A preposition is a word that serves to connect other 
words, and by its nature, to show what kind of relation exists 
between the words so connected ; as, " He went from Nashville 
to Winchester, by railroad, in three hours.' ' The relation is 
here shown between the verb went, and the nouns following 
the prepositions from, to, by, in. 

9 

Q. — What is a conjunction ? 

A. — A conjunction is a word that serves to connect sen- 
tences, so as, out of two or more simple sentences, to make 
but one compound sentence ; as "James went to town today, 
but he will return soon." "John or Edward will be here 



ETYMOLOGY OFFICE OF WORDS. 23 

to-day," — "two and three are five/' — sometimes the conjunction 
only connects words, as in the last example. 

Q. — What is an interjection ? 

A. — An interjection is a word, or words, thrown in between 
the parts of a sentence to express the passion, or sudden emo- 
tion of the speaker or writer ; as, 0! Oh! Ah! Alas! as, 0! 
I have alienated my friend ! Alas ! I fear for life ! 

A SYNOPSIS OF THE TEN PARTS OF SPEECH, OR 
THE OFFICE OF WORDS. 

1 
Q. — What is the office of the noun ? 
A. — Its office is to represent by name, the person or thing 
which is the subject matter of discourse ; as well as the names 
of things occurring in the discourse, in connection with the 
subject. 

Q. — What is the office of the article ? 

A. — Its office is to restrict or limit, either definitely, or in- 
definitely, the signification of nouns as names of things oc- 
curring in discourse. 

3 

Q. — What is the office of the adjective? 
A. — Its office is to modify or qualify, in some sense or 
other, the sense, meaning or latitude of nouns. 

4 

Q. — What is the office of the pronoun ? 

A. — Its office is to represent the noun; hence, it is a sub- 
stitute for the noun, representing the noun with all the attri- 
butes and qualities possessed by the noun as its antecedent. 

5 

Q. — What is the office of the verb? 

A.-— Its office is to express the action, passion or being, at-^ 
tributed or referred to its subject, as agent, actor, or doer, if 
the verb be active; or as subject merely, if the verb be passive 
or neuter. 

6 

Q. — What is the office of the participle ? 

A. — Its office is to express action, passion, or being, like the 
verb, and also to refer to nouns and pronouns like an adjec- 
tive ; upon which it depends for its subject or actor. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7 

Q. — What is the office of the adverb ? 

A. — Its office is to denote the place, the time, or the manner, 
in which an action or event occurs, whether past, present 
or future ; as well as to denote, as a cause, the reason for its 
occurrence. 

8 

Q. — What is the office of the preposition ? 

A. — Its office is to connect other words, and to show by 
some peculiarity of its own, the relation existing between 
them. It forms adjuncts, the chief office of which is to 
qualify verbs like adverbs, or to qualify nouns like adjectives. 

9 

Q. — What is the office of the conjunction ? 
A. — Its office is to connect sentences and words in succes- 
sion so as to form a discourse. 

10 

Q. — What is the office of the interjection? 

A. — Its office is to express the sudden emotion of the mind 
under the influence of joy, grief, surprise, &c. too deep and 
powerful for ordinary language ; and therefore this part of 
speech has no grammatical connection with other words in a 
sentence. 

EPITOME. 

Q. — In the orderly arrangement of the pre- 
ceding, do you recognize classes of the ten parts 
of speech as well as classes of the words in the 
language ? 

A. — Yes; we recognize three classes, separate and distinct 
from each other ; the design of which is to show that we have 
but two leading words as parts of speech in the English lan- 
guage, embracing, perhaps, eighty thousand words. 

Q. — I had already thought the reducing of the 
eighty thousand words to ten, was a very consi- 
derable abridgement; and that the pitchers (if I 
may be allowed the figure), would scarcely prove 
sufficiently ample for the repository of wisdom ; 
but I now see, or I think I begin to perceive that, 
though the measures appear at first view to be 



ETYMOLOGY CLASSIFICATION. 25 

inadequate to the aggregated amount; yet, in the 
arrangement, there is nothing lost, or undescried. 
So much for system. But how you will succeed 
in the reduction of the ten, or rather, the eighty 
thousand words to two, I confess I do not so 
readily apprehend. Will you, therefore, please 
to illustrate in the simplest manner, what you 
propose? 

A. — With a very good will; for the pleasure derived from 
your candor and earnest solicitude, is ample compensation for 
the time employed. The epitome, then, is as follows : 

1st. THE NOUN" CLASS. 

1 
1st. The noun is the leader, and the subject of a proposition. 

2 

2d.*The article restricts or limits the signification of the noun. 

3 
3d. The adjective modifies the noun, as to its sense or meaning. 

4 

4th. The pronoun represents the noun with its modified mean- 
ing. 

2d. THE VERB CLASS. 

6 

1st. The verb is the leader and predicate? it affirms, &c. of 
its subject. 

6 

2d. The participle is derived from the verb, and resembles 
U, &c. 

7 

3d. The adverb modifies the verb and participle, (fee. 
3d. THE CONNECTIVE CLASS. 

8 

1st. The preposition connects words only, forming adjuncts 
to nouns, verbs, (fee. 

9 

2d. The conjunction connects sentences, (fee. forming a discourse, 

10 

The interjection has nothing to do with the other parts of 
speech, so every word, except the noun and the verb, has a 
qualifying or modifying influence; which influence affects 
2 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



nouns, lite adjectives, or it affects verbs, like adverbs. The 
modifying influence of the prepositions, is seen in the adjuncts 
formed by them, always qualifying the antecedent term of rela- 
tion. The modifying influence of the conjunctions, is that of 
their adding sentence to sentence, and clause to clause ; which 
clauses are often only sentences abridged, and sometimes word 
to word, in the formation of discourse. The interjection, be 
it remembered, has no qualifying influence, nor is it connected, 
grammatically, with any other part of speech. 

So, in the pursuit of grammatical information, you are 
dealing, primarily, with but two parts, i. e. the subject and the 
predicate ; these are modified in various ways, by the qualify- 
ing words and phrases : hence the necessity of understanding 
well the different parts of speech, and their modifications. 



SECTION II. 

OF THE NOUK 
Q. — What is a noun% 

A. — A noun is the name of anything that can be known or 
mentioned ; as, book, school, wisdom. 

Q. — How many kinds of nouns are there ? 
A. — Two; the common noun, and the proper noun. 

Q. — What is the difference between them ? 

A. — A common noun is a name that is not applied to any 
particular person, place or thing; as, man, boy, town, river ; 
but is common in its application to things in general. A 
proper noun is the name of a particular person, place or 
thing; as George, Mary, Nashville, Cumberland. A proper 
noun becomes a common noun when it has an article placed 
before it; as, "He is the Cicero of his age." 

Q.— Are there any other kinds of nouns ? 

A . — Yes ; but the distinction is thought to be unnecessary. 

Q. — What are they called? 

A. — Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, abstract 
nouns, and participial nouns. 



ETYMOLOGY GENDER. 27 

Q. — What is a collective noun, or noun of 
multitude ? 

A. — A collective noun, or a noun of multitude is one com- 
posed of many, taken in the singular or plural number ; as, 
army, people, congregation, Congress, &c. Rule 4, Syntax. 

Q. — What is an abstract noun ? 

A. — An abstract noun is the name of a quality abstracted 
from the substance or being to which it belongs, or it is the 
name of a quality; as, whiteness, piety, wickedness, right- 
eousness. 

Q. — What is a participial noun ? 

A. — It is simply & participle used as a noun, or taking the 
construction of a noun by having the article placed before it ; 
as, the beginning, the reading, the writing, &c, There are 
also diminutive nouns; as leaflet, from leaf; streamlet, from 
stream; hillock, from hill; these are nouns, derived from 
nouns. 

Q. — Is there any instance in which common 
nouns become proper nouns ? 

A. — Yes; Common nouns, when they are addressed, be- 
come proper nouns ; as, Hail, Liberty ! Death ! where is 
thy sting ! Grave ! where is thy victory ! Nouns personified 
become proper nouns, and should always begin with a capital 
letter, as other proper nouns. 

Q. — How are nouns modified? 

A. — Nouns are modified, 1st by gender: 2d by person: 
3d by number : and 4th by case. 

OF GENDER. 

Q.- — What is gender when applied to nouns? 

A. — Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. 

Q. — How many genders are there? 

A. — Four ; the masculine, feminine, neuter, and the com- 
mon. 

Q. — What does the masculine gender denote? 
■ m A.— It denotes animals of the male sex ; as, man, boy, 
king, governor. 



ZO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — What does the feminine gender denote? 
A. — It denotes animals of the female sex; as, woman, girl, 
queen, governess. 

Q. — What does the neuter gender denote ? 
A. — It denotes things that have no sex; as, tree, house, gar- 
de?!, river, town. 

Q. — What does the common gender denote? 

A. — It is applied to animals whose gender or sex is not 
known, either from the noun itself, or from the context; as, 
child, children, people, hearers, servant, fowl, deer, sheep, &c. 

Q. — Suppose I say, child is either masculine 
or feminine, what then ? 

A. — It would be very true; but we should be no nearer 
the sex, than we should be in saying it is common gender, for 
the word child is common in its application to a child of either 
sex; we cannot properly say, children is either masculine or 
feminine, because it may be both masculine and feminine ; it 
will not do to say, absolutely, it is both; for it may be used in 
reference to children that are all males, or the reverse. But 
the term child is equally applicable to either sex : hence we 
call it common gender. 

Q. — As the common gender seems to be con- 
templated in the masculine and feminine, have 
we theain fact four genders, or three ? 

A. — In point of fact, we have but two sexes ; the term 
gender is used to distinguish nouns with regard to sex ; the 
neuter gender means neither gender ; that is, no gender at all : 
and where there is no gender at all, it would seem to be hard 
to find a distinction of gender ; so in regard to fact we have 
but two genders, the masculine and the feminine. 

Q. — But is it not necessary to distinguish the 
nouns without sex, from those that have sex ? 

A. — It surely is, and for this reason we use the neuter gen- 
der, and for a similar reason we use the common gender; for 
it is equally important to distinguish between those nouns of 
known gender, and those the gender of which is not known; 
and for which the term common gender is better adapted than 
any other at our command. 



ETYMOLOGY GENDER. 



29 



The English Language has three methods of distinguishing 
the sex : 

First — By different words. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Beau, 


belle. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Boy, 
Brother, 


girl, 
sister. 


Landlord, 
Lord, 


landlady, 
lady. 


Buck, 


doe. 


Male, 


female. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Man, 


woman. 


Earl, 


countess. 


Master, 


mistress. 


Father, 


mother. 


Master, 


miss. 


Friar or monk 


, nun. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Gander, 

Gentleman, 

Hart, 


goose. 

lady. 

roe. 


Papa, 

Son, 

Stag, 


mamma. 

daughter. 

hind. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Wizard, 


witch. 


King, 


queen. 






Second — By difference of termination. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot, 


abbess. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Actor, 


actress. 


Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Administrator 


, administratrix 


. Lion, 


lioness. 


Ambassador, 


ambassadress. 


Marquis, 


marchioness, 


Arbiter, 


arbitress. 


Margrave, 


margravine. 


Author, 


authoress. 


Negro, 


negress. 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Bridegroom, . 


bride. 


Peer, 


peeress. 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Caterer, 
Chanter, 
Conductor, 


cateress. 

chantress. 

conductress. 


Prior, 

Prophet, 

Protector, 


prioress. 

prophetess. 

protectress. 


Count, 


countess. 


Priest, 


priestess. 


Czar, 


czarina. 


Prince, 


princess. 


Dauphin, 
Deacon, 


dauphiness. 
deaconess, 


Shepherd, 
Songster, 


shepherdess, 
songstress. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Sorcerer, 


sorceress. 


Emperor, 
Enchanter, 


empress, 
enchantress. 


Sultan, 


{ sultaness. 
1 sultana. 


Executor, 


executrix. 


Tailor, 


tailoress. 


Governor, 


governess. 


Testator, 


testatrix. 


Heir, 


heiress. 


Tiger, 


tigress. 



30 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Masculine. 

Hero, 

Host, 

Hunter, 

Instructor, 



Feminine. 

heroine. 

hostess. 

huntress. 

instructress. 



Masculine. 

Tutor, 

Viscount, 

Votary, 

Widower, 



Feminine. 

tutoress. 

viscountess. 

votaress. 

widow. 



Third — Br prefixing or annexing another word. 



Landlord, 
Gentleman, 
Veacock, 
-fife-goat, 



landlady, 
gentlewoman, 
peahen, 
she-goat. 



.Mm-servant, maid- servant. 
(7oc&-sparrow, hen -sparrow. 
Male child, female child. 



OF PERSON. 

Q. — What is Person when applied to nouns ? 

A. — Person applies both to nouns and pronouns, and de- 
notes the property of the noun or pronoun, that varies the 
verb, i. e. causes it to change its form; as, I am, thou art, he is, 
or the man is. 

Q. — How many persons are there ? 

A. — Three ; the first, second, and third. 

Q. — What do they signify ? 

A. — The first person denotes the speaker; the second de- 
notes the person spoken to ; and the third denotes the person or 
thing spoken of. 

Q. — Why are these three persons necessary in 
grammar ? 

A.— A conversation implies, 1st, a speaker; 2d, a person to 
whom the speech is directed ; and 3d, a person or thing about 
which, (as the subject of conversation,) the^rs^ and second 
persons are engaged. Or it implies, 1st, a speaker, 2d, a person 
spoken to, and 3d, a person or thing spoken of ; as, 

1st 2d 3d 

I will instruct you in grammar. 

Q. — How shall I always know the person of 
nouns and pronouns ? 

A. — By keeping steadily in mind what is denoted by the 
definition of person, as above, and as illustrated in the sen- 



ETYMOLOGY NUMBER. 31 

tence quoted, in which the pronoun I, represents the speaker, 
or first person ; the pronoun you, represents the person spoken 
to, or second person ; and the noun grammar represents the 
thing spoken of, or third person. 

Q. — Are nouns always of the third person ? 

j± m — No ; a noun may be second or third person ; but 
a noun cannot be first person: for a noun cannot rep- 
resent the speaker in the first person ; in the sentence " I 
Paul, write, &c." — the pronoun / represents the speaker, in 
the first person ; and the noun Paul, tells us who the speaker 
is, in the third person ; for he speaks of himself, i. e. about 
himself. 



OF NUMBER. 

Q. — What is number when applied to nouns 
and pronouns ? 

A. — Number is the consideration of objects, as one or more. 

Q. — How many numbers are there ? 

A. — Two ; the singular and the plural. 

Q. — What do they imply? 

A. — The singular number implies but one ; as man, tree, 
book ; the plural number implies two or more than two ; as men, 
trees, books. 

Q. — Are all nouns as easily distinguished in re- 
gard to the singular and the plural, as those just 
given ? 

A. — No; the singular and the plural of some classes of 
nouns are not always perceivable, at the first view. 

Q. — What is the best general rule in regard to 
this? 

A. — The best general rule in reference to this, and all 
similar difficulties, is "to observe strictly what the sense ne- 
cessarily requires." See Rule 4, Syntax. 

Q*— Are not some nouns used in the singular 
only? 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A. — Yes ; such are the names of metals, virtues, vices, 
sciences, arts, abstract qualities, and things weighed, or measured; 
as gold, meekness, idleness, intemperance, sculpture, geometry, 
piety, wisdom, flour, milk, &c, except when different sons of 
things are expressed, as teas, wines, liquors, sugars, &c. 

Q. — Kxe not some nouns used in the plural only ? 

A. — Yes ; such as annals, antipodes, archives, assets, ashes, 
billiards, breeches , bitters, clothes, calends, colors (military ban- 
ners), dregs, goods, hysterics, ides, intestines, lees, letters (lite- 
rature), manners, morals, nones, orgies, pleiades, shambles, 
t idi tigs, thanks, vespers, vitals, victuals. And things consist- 
ing of two parts ; as bellows, drawers, hose, nippers, pincers, 
pliers, snuffers, scissors, shears, tongs, (fee. A few words 
usually plural, have sometimes a singular, denoting a part 
of that expressed by the plural ; as bowel, lung, entrail, &c. 

Q. — Are not some nouns alike in both num- 
bers? 

A. — Yes ; such as deer, sheep, swine, vermin, salmon, ap- 
paratus, hiatus, series, congeries, species, superficies ; head (in 
the sense of individual cattle) ; also fish and fowl, denoting 
the class ; but denoting individuals, they have the regular plu- 
ral ; as fishes, fowls. The words brace, couple, pair, yoke, 
dozen, score, gross, hundred, thousand, and some others, after 
adjectives of number, are either singular or plural, as deter- 
mined by the adjective or article ; as, a braceis ; a dozen is ; a 
hundred is; a thousand is also a number; two brace are; three 
dozen are ; six hundred (is a number) men are in the field ; 
so the sense, only, can determine the propriety, in all cases, 
of their use as singular, or plural ; as, by scores, hundreds and 
thousands. 

Q. — Are there not some nouns plural in form, 
but sometimes singular in signification? 

A. — Yes ; such as amends, means, riches, pains (effort), 
odds, alms, wages ; and the names of certain sciences : as 
mathematics, ethics, optics, acoustics, metaphysics, politics, 
pneumatics , hydrostatics, &c. Means and amends, referring 
to one object are singular; to more than one they are plurai 
Mean, in the singular form, is used to signify the middle 
between two extremes. Alms, and riches are really singular. 



ETYMOLOGY NUMBER. 



33 



though now used commonly in the plural. News is properly 
singular though formerly used in the singular or plural. Mo- 
lasses and measles though ending like the plural, are proper- 
ly singular. Oats is generally plural. Gallows is both 
singular and plural, though a distinct plural form, gallowses, 
is also in use. 

The following are singular in form, but in the construction 
various ; as, horse and foot, meaning bodies of troops ; and 
people, meaning persons, are always plural. Cannon, shot, 
sail, cavalry, infantry, as singular or plural. People, when 
it signifies a community of persons, is a collective noun in the 
singular, and sometimes, though rarely, it takes a plural form ; 
as, "many peoples, and nations/' Rev. x, 11. 

Note. — A good rule for the pupil in determining the number of some 
nouns, is to consider whether the words this or these, that or those, a, 
an, or the, singular or plural, will coalesce (unite) with the noun ; a.Q,this 
book, these books, a book, a books, the book, the books, an apple, an ap- 
ples, tliat man, those man, these man, these men ; bearing in mind that 
adjective pronouns and numeral adjectives must agree in number with 
their nouns ; and also that the article a or an will not agree with nouns 
in the plural, whilst the article the wiJl agree with nouns either in the 
singular or plural. See Rules of Syntax, bth, and 9th, and notes. 

Words, figures, and letters, used merely as nouns, without regard to 
their appropriate signification, form their plural with an apostrophe and 
the letter s ; as, the if's and and's the but's and wherefore* s ; the b'« 
and 9's / the a's and the b's. 



The Singular and the Plural of Foreign Words in com- 
mon use in the English Language. 



Singular. 

Alumnus, 

Amanuensis, 

Analysis, 

Animalculum, 

Antithesis, 

Apex, •< 

Appendix, •< 

Automaton -j 
Axis, 



Plural. 

alumni. 

amanuenses. 

analyses. 

animalcula. 

antitheses. 

apices, 

apexes. 

appendices, 

appendixes. 

automata, 

automatons. 

axes. 



Singular. 

Gymnasium 

Hypothesis, 
Ignis fatuus, 
Index, 

Index, 



Lamina, 
Lava, 



Plural. 

(gymnasia, 

(gymnasiums. 

hypotheses. 

ignes fatui. 

indexes (pointers 
or tables of 
contents.) 

indices, (refering 
to algebraic 
quan cities.) 

laminae. 

lavse. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



34 

Singular. 
Arcanum, 

Bandit, 

Basis, 
Beau, 

Calix, 

Cherub, 

Chrysalis, 
Datum, 
Desideratum 
Diaeresis, 

Dogma, 

Effluvium, 
Ellipsis, 
Emphasis, 
Ephemeris, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 
Focus, 

Formula, 

Fungus, 
Genus, 

OF CASE. 

Q. — What is Case, when applied to nouns and 
pronouns ? 

A. — Case when so applied, denotes the relation, position, 
or situation, that nouns and pronouns sustain or occupy in 
regard to other words in the sentence. 

Q — How many cases are there? 

Three ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objec- 



Plural. 

arcana, 
(banditti, 
(bandits. 

bases. 

beaux, 
(calices, 
(calixes. 
(cherubim, 
(cherubs. 

chrysalides. 

data. 
, desiderata. 

diaereses, 
(dogmas, 
(dogmata. 

effluvia. 

ellipses. 

emphases. 

ephemerides. 
(encomiums, 
(encomia. 

errata. 

foci. 

( formulas, 
(formulae, 
j fungi, 
(funguses. 



Singular. 
Medium, 
Metamorphosis 
Memorandum 

Momentum, 

Monsieur, 

Miasma, 

Nebula, 

Oasis, 

Parenthesis, 

Phasis, 

Phenomenon, 

Radius, 

Scoria, 

Scholium, 

Stamen, 

Stratum, 
Stimulus, 

Seraph, 

Speculum, 

Thesis, 

Vortex, 



Plural. 
(media, 
(mediums. 
, metamorphoses. 
( memoranda, 
( memorandums. 
{ momenta, 
(momentums. 

messieures. 

miasmata. 

nebulae. 

oases. 

parentheses. 

phases. 

phenomena. 

radii. 

scoriae. 

scholia, 

scholiums. 

stamens, 

stamina. 

strata. 

stimuli. 

seraphim, 

seraphs. 

specula. 

theses. 

vortices. 



A, 
tive. 

Q. 

A, 



-What does the nominative case denote ? 
-The nominative case denotes the agent or subject of 



ETYMOLOGY CASE. 35 

the verb; as " John runs ;" "James is struck;" "God is 
good." 

Q. — What is the difference between an agent 
and a subject % 

A. — Agency implies action — "John runs ;" the verb runs 
expresses an action, which action is referred to "John" as an 
active nominative or agent. In the sentence "James is 
struck," the verb "is struck" does not represent the. nomina- 
tive James as doing, or performing an action; but it, the 
verb, represents its nominative "James" as receiving or en- 
during the action, the kind of action expressed by the verb, 
whilst the agent or performer of the action, is referred to 
another person or thing, known or not known ; and James is 
therefore called a passive nominative or subject ; in the sen- 
tence " God is good," the noun God is a neuter nominative, 
for the verb is expresses no action at all, but simply being ; 
agency implies action, this verb is not active, therefore the 
nominative God is not an active nominative, but simply the 
subject of the affirmation " is good" See Rule 1st Syntax, 2d 
clause. 

Q. — What is denoted by the possessive case ? 

A . — The possessive case denotes the possession of something, 
or the owner of property ; as John's horse, Morrison's planta- 
tion. See Rule 10th, Syntax. 

Q. — What is meant by the objective case? 

A. — This case denotes the object of an action expressed by 
an active transitive verb ; or the object of an action expressed by 
a participle which is derived from an active transitive verb ; 
or the object of a relation expressed by a preposition ; as, the 
objective case by the active transitive verb, " I saw the boy 
when he bent his bow." See Rule 11, Syntax. By the parti- 
ciplc, "I saw the boy bending his bow," See Rule 14, Syn- 
tax. By the preposition, "I saw the boy standing in the road, 
bending his bow with both hands." See Rule 17, Syntax. 

Q. — What is meant by the nominative case in- 
dependent ? 

A. — A noun or pronoun directly addressed, i. e. represent- 
ing the person spoken to, at the same time having no verb to 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

agree with it, is in the nominative case independent ; as "John, 
recite your lesson ;•" " Join ye loud spheres, the vocal choir.' ' 

Q. — Why is a noun or pronoun in this case 
called independent ? 

A. — Because the noun or pronoun representing the person 
spoken to, is not connected to any other word in the sentence, 
it is therefore independent, i.e. not dependent on any other word 
in the sentence ; all other words in a sentence are connected 
with each other, but this case is not so. 

Q. — Why is it called nominative, if it is neither 
agent nor subject ? 

A. — Because if the pronoun were used instead of the noun, 
it would require the form peculiar to the nominative case. See 
Declension of the pronouns, Index. 

Q. — Why is it said to be in a certain case, see- 
ing that case means state or condition of nouns, 
&c, in relation to other words in a sentence? 

A. — A reasonable question, I admit, and shall have a suit- 
able reply. Case, as has been defined, belongs to nouns and 
pronouns, and every noun and pronoun must have some case 
assigned to it : say, case means position, state or relation ; the 
case independent sustains no relation to other words, but want 
of relation ; and this want of it constitutes its particular posi- 
tion or state in regard to the words of the sentence : that is, 
it being a direct address made by the speaker to the person 
spoken to, is not connected with the substance of the address, 
or dependent upon it for a construction, but has a construction 
peculiar to the position or state it occupies in regard to the ad- 
dress made, which is entirely independent as to the words 
forming the sentence. In the sentence " Join, ye loud spheres 
the vocal choir," the noun spheres is the name of the things 
personified by the address, and is consequently in the nomina- 
tive case independent, of the second person, plural number ; 
the pronoun ye personates or represents the noun spheres in 
the second person, plural number, and is also in the nomina- 
tive case independent, put by apposition with the noun spheres 
in the same case, because it means the same as spheres. 

Q. — What is meant by nouns, &c. in apposition? 

A. — Apposition implies that two or more words are put in 



ETYMOLOGY ARTICLE. 37 

the same case, when they mean the same person or thing. In 
the sentence above, ye and spheres are in apposition ; also, '' I 
Paul, the apostle/' /and Paul and apostle are in apposition. 
See 4th note under Rule 11, Syntax. 

Q. — What is meant by the nominative case ab- 
solute, ? 

A % — The nominative case absolute differs from the nomina- 
tive independent in two things. The case absolute is consti- 
tuted by placing a noun or pronoun directly before a, participle, 
without any verb to agree with it. The nominative absolute is 
generally of the third person ; the nominative independent is 
always of the second person ; the nominative independent is 
always independent of the rest of the sentence ; the nomina- 
tive absolute always depends upon a participle, either ex- 
pressed or implied; as," The sun being up, we pursued our 
journey." " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost." The case 
absolute is always nominative for the same reason assigned in 
reference to the case independent. See abridged Propositions. 

Note. — As the cases of nouns and pronouns furnish a fruitful theme 
for investigation, the pupil is advised to consult carefully, Rules of 
Syntax, 1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 12, 14, 17, 18 and 20. 



SECTION III. 
OF THE ARTICLE. 

Q. — What is an article ? 

A. — An article is a word added to a noun to point it out, 
and to show how far its signification extends ; as, a book, an 
apple, the tree. 

Q. — How many articles are there ? 
A. — Two ; the definite and the indefinite. 

Q. — What words are called articles? 
A. — A or an, and the. 

Q. — Why do you mention three when there are 
only two ? 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A. — Because a becomes an before a vowel, or a silent h; 
as, a book, an apple, an honest man. 

Q.—Is there an exception to this rule? 

A. — Yes ; there are few general rules without some excep- 
tions ; the exception here alluded to is this ; a is often used 
before words beginning with the long sound of u; as, a union, 
a university, a useful book : though an is always used before 
words beginning with the short sound of u ; as, an uproar, an 
usher, an. umbrella. 

Q. — Which is called the definite article ? 

A.— -The is called the definite article, because it limits or 
restricts the noun to a particular object, or collection of ob- 
jects; as, "Give me the book ;" "bring me the apples;" 
meaning a particular book, or the apples referred to. 

Q. — Why is a or an called the indefinite article? 

A. — Because by its use we limit the noun to one of the 
kind, but to no particular one ; as, " give me a book ;*' "bring 
me an apple ;" no particular book being alluded to ; as any 
book, any apple. 

Q. — How is a noun taken, having no article ? 

A.— -In a general or unrestricted sense; as, "A candid 
temper is proper for man;" that is, for all mankind. See Rule 
9, Syntax. 



SECTION IV. 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
Q. — What is an adjective ? 

A, — An adjective is a word added to a noun to express its 
quality, character, or kind, or to restrict its meaning; as, "A 
good knife ;" " an honest man ;" "a pine tree; "this book ;" 
"any man ;" " some men." 

Q. — How are adjectives modified ? 

A. — By degrees of comparison. 

Q. — How many degrees are there ? 

A. — Three ; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

Q. — What does the positive degree denote ? 

A. — The positive degree denotes the simple form or first state 



ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVE COMPARED. 



39 



of the adjective, without any increase or diminution ; as, good, 
wise, great. 

Q. — What does the comparative degree denote ? 

A. — The comparative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive in signification ; as, better, wiser, greater. 

Q. — What does the superlative degree denote ? 

A. — The superlative degree increases or lessens the quality 
of an object to the highest or lowest degree of comparison ;as, 
best, wisest, greatest; or decreasing it ; as, wise, less wise, least 
wise. 

Q. — How are adjectives usually compared ? 

^4.— Monosyllables for the most part are compared by er 
and est ; dissyllables by more and most. Dissyllables ending 
in y, or le after a mute, or accented on the last syllable, 
easily admit of an er and est. Words of more than two syl- 
lables hardly ever admit of er or est. In some words the su- 
perlative is formed by adding the adverb most to the end of 
them ; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, fore- 
most 

Q. — What is the order in the comparison of ad- 
jectives? 

A. — The order to be observed is as follows : 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Bad, 


worse, 


worst. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 


Late, 


later or latter, 


latest or last. 


Early, 
Far, 


earlier, 
farther, 


earliest, 
farthest. 


Fore, 


former, 


foremost or first. 


Old, 


older or elder, 


oldest or eldest. 


Wise, 


wiser, 


wisest. 


Holy, 
Holy, 
Holy, 
Much or many, 


less holy, 
holier, 
more holy, 
more, 


least holy, 
holiest, 
most holy, 
most, 


Near, 


nearer, 


nearest or next. 


Happy, 
Happy, 


happier, 
more happy, 


happiest, 
most happy. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — Do all adjectives admit of degrees of com- 
parison? 

A. — No; adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
increase or diminution, cannot properly be compared. 

Q. — Can you give me some rule or rules, illus- 
trative of such as cannot be compared? 

A.— The following will show what you request; to wit: 

1. Numeral adjectives; as, one, two, three, four; first, 
second, third, &c. 

2. Adjectives derived from proper names ; as, American, 
English, French, Irish, Roman, etc. 

3. Adjectives that denote figure, shape, or material; as, 
circular, square, round, wooden, leaden, &c. 

4. Adjectives that denote posture or position; as, perp&nr 
dicular, horizontal. 

5. Definitive adjectives ; as, each, every, some, all, such, <bc. 

6. Adjectives of an absolute or superlative signification ; as, 
true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, infinite, complete, holy, dec. 

Of these last, however, comparative and superlative forms 
are sometimes used, either to give greater force to the ex- 
pression, or when the words are used in a sense not strictly- 
absolute, or superlative. More complete, most complete, less 
complete, are common. 

Q. — When are adjectives in the superlative of 
eminence ? 

A. — When the adjective itself is preceded, and qualified by 
the word very, or exceedingly, or any other of similar import, 
it is said to be in the superlative of eminence; as, "very elo- 
quent," " exceedingly wise . ' ' 

Q. — Why is it necessary to discriminate be- 
tween the superlative of eminence and the super- 
lative of comparison? 

A. — It is only necessary in order to distinguish that which 
is properly the superlative, from that which is not so, but which 
is sometimes indirectly, or remotely, intended to assume some- 
thing of comparison, perhaps above mediocrity, yet, not 
amounting to a degree of comparison. " Very eloquent" is 
the superlative of eminence; "most eloquent" is the super- 
lative of comparison. 



ETYMOLOGY COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 41 

Q. — Is it proper to say " Cicero was more elo- 
quent than the Romans?" 

A. — It is not proper; because Cicero himself was one of 
the class of men represented by the word Romans, and it 
would be to compare Cicero with himself; which would be an 
absurdity ; more and than are words of comparison, and 
necessarily imply another word or thing with which Cicero is 
compared, so as properly to form the antithesis; thus, " Ci- 
cero was more eloquent than any other Koman." 

Q. — What is antithesis ? 

A.- — It means opposition of words, sentences, or sentiments ; 
or contrast; it is that upon which every comparison properly de- 
pends ; so that, when we wish to make a comparison, we 
must recollect the principle involved, and place the words or 
things to be compared in the proper attitude, or relation, that 
the contrast or antithesis be clearly shown. This will prevent 
both ambiguity and absurdity. 

Q. — What influence has ish in the formation of 
adjectives? 

A. — They may, from their terminating in ish, be called 
diminutive adjectives ; for the meaning of the adjective in the 
positive degree, is sometimes diminished without employing 
comparison, by annexing the syllable ish; as, white, whitish ; 
Hack, blackish; salt, saltish. Various shades or modifications 
of quality are also frequently expressed by connecting, with 
the adjective, such words as rather, somewhat, slightly, a little, 
too, very, greatly, &c. And in the comparative and superlative, 
by such words as much, far, altogether, by far, &c. Much is 
applied to things weighed or measured ; many is applied to 
things that are numbered ; more and most, to both. 

Q. — What is meant by the regular comparison of 
adjectives? 

A. — -All adjectives forming their comparatives in er, as 
wiser, greater, and their superlatives in est, as wisest, greatest, 
and all those forming the same degrees by placing more and 
most before them ; as lovely, more lovely, most lovely ; righteous, 
more righteous, most righteous ; are regular in their comparison. 

Q. — How are those called irregular compared ? 

A. — Those Adjectives that will not form the comparative and 
2* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the superlative degrees by adding er or est, or by prefixing more 
or most to the word, as shown above and in the declension, 
are irregular in their comparison ; as, positive, good ; compa- 
rative, better; superlative, best; positive, bad; comparative, 
worse ; superlative,m>rs£ ; positive, little ; comparative, less ; 
superlative, least. It will be observed in these, and all others 
of irregular comparison, that the word itself undergoes a 
change in its orthography to attain the comparative and the 
superlative ; those regularly compared do not. 

Q. — What are numeral adjectives? 

A. — Those used in counting and numbering are called nu- 
merals, or numeral adjectives; as, one, two, three, four, &c; 
a,n& first, second, third, &c. 

Q. — What are the names of distinction in re- 
gard to these two classes of adjectives? 

A. — Those used in counting, as one, two, three, &c. are call- 
ed numeral adjectives of the Cardinal kind ; and those used 
in numbering, as, first, second, third, &c, are called numeral 
adjectives of the Ordinal kind. 

Q. — Why are they so called ? 

A. — Because cardinal means chief, principal, or head, or 
first; they are one, two, three; or 1, 2, 3, <fec. is the chief, 
principal, head, or first order of counting. And ordinal de- 
notes order, and are those used in numbering, as, first, second, 
third; or, 1st, 2d, 3d, &c. The difference is this; 10, cardi- 
nal, means ten units, or one unit taken ten times ; the 10th, or 
tenth, ordinal, means but one unit out of ten; the one after 9. 

Q, — What is the use of this distinction? 
A. — The cardinal tells how many are meant; the ordinal 
tells which one of a number is meant. 

Q. — Are adjectives ever taken as nouns? 

A. — Yes ; when the noun to which the adjective belongs is 
not expressed, the adjective may be taken as the noun ; but in 
all cases when so taken, it must be parsed precisely as the noun 
itself, if expressed, would require. It is better in such cases 
to supply the ellipsis by telling what noun, understood, the ad- 
jective belongs to, and parse each separately, as their proper- 
ties, accidents or modifications may require. See Rule 8, 
Syntax. 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUN. 43 

SECTION V. 

OF THE PRONOUN. 

Q. — What is a pronoun ? 

A. — A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to pre- 
vent the too frequent repetition of the same word; as, "The 
man is happy, he is benevolent, he is useful." 

Q. — How many kinds of pronouns are there? 
A. — Three; namely, the personal, the relative, and the ad- 
jective pronouns. 

Q. — Why is one kind called personal ? 

A. — Because the personal pronoun always represents the 
same person. See the declension of pronouns, and Rule 5, 
Syntax. 

Q. — Why is one kind called the relative ? 

A. — Because the relative pronoun always relates to some 
word or phrase going before it, called its antecedent, with 
which it must agree in number and person. See relative pro- 
noun, and Rule 5, Syntax. 

Q. — Why is one kind called the adjective pro- 
noun? 

A. — Because it participates the nature of an adjective and 
also the nature of a pronoun, and is disposed of like other ad- 
jectives by Rule 8th, Syntax. See adjective pronoun, and 
also Rules 5th and 8th, Syntax. 

OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
Q. — What is a personal pronoun ? 

A. — It is a pronoun that always represents the same per- 
son : and as there are three persons, there are three of these 
pronouns in each number ; explained as follows, viz : 

/ is always the first person, \ 

Thou is always the second person, V Singular Number. 

He, she or it, is always the third person.) 

We is always the first person, ] 

Ye or you is always the second person, > Plural Number. 

They is always the third person, ) 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — This seems to be a very pretty illustra- 
tion; but as I am only a learner, I hope you 
will not think it a hardship on your part, or du- 
plicity in me, if I request you to make the 
reasonableness of this arrangement of the pro- 
nouns a little more intelligible ? 

A. — Assuredly I shall not think it duplicity in you, nor a 
hardship on my part; for I have not entirely forgotten my 
early difficulties on this subject; besides, to know that the 
subject of your request is comprehended through my instru- 
mentality, will afford me ample compensation. Then con- 
sider, as pronouns stand for nouns, they must truly represent 
those nouns, in gender, person, and number; otherwise they 
would not be true representatives. Again when we reflect 
that there are three persons who may be the subject of any 
discourse, the proposition illustrates itself. For, first, the 
person who speaks may speak of himself; secondly, he may 
speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, 
he may speak of some other person.; and as the speakers, 
the persons spoken to, and the other persons spoken of, may 
be many, so each of these persons must have the plural num- 
ber, or the singular as the noun represented by it may re- 
quire. Gender, however, has respect only to third person 
singular. 

Q. — From reflecting upon the preceding, I 
confess I perceive something of the nature of the 
pronoun as illustrated; but why is gender re- 
stricted to those of the third person singular ? 

A. — Because the persons speaking and ihe person spoken 
to, being at the same time the subjects of the discourse, are 
supposed to be present, from which and other circumstances, 
their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be marked by 
a distinction of gender in the pronouns ; but the third person, 
or thing spoken of being absent, and in many respects not 
known, it is necessary that it should be marked by a distinc- 
tion of gender; at least, when some particular person or 
thing is spoken of, that ought to be more distinctly marked ; 
accordingly, the pronoun singular of the third person has the 
three gendars ; he, she, it. 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUN. 45 

Q. — I think I now understand something at 
least of the gender, person and number of the 
pronoun; but how shall I be able to know its 

case ? 

A. — First, by its declension; secondly by the sense. 

Q. — What is meant by declension ? 
A. — The declension of the pronouns, is designed to show 
us the form the pronouns assume when in either of the three 
cases. 

The personal pronouns are thus declined : 
> DECLENSION". 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

Nom. case. Poss. case. Object, case. 
1st. Pers. Sing. I mine me. 

2d. " " Thou thine thee. 

3d. " " Mas. gender, He his him. 

3d. " " Fern. " She hers her. 

3d. " " Neut. " It its it. 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

Nom. case. Poss. case. Object, case. 
1st. Pers. Plural. We ours us. 

2d. " " Ye or you yours you. 

3d. " »' They theirs them. 

By this arrangement you will see, at a glance, the use of 
the declension, to wit : / is always first person, and singular 
number and nominative case. Mine is always first person, sin- 
gular number, and possessive case. Me is always first person, 
singular number, and objective case. 

Q. — This is also a handsome, and I trust a 
useful arrangement, but I see a difficulty in re- 
gard to the pronouns it and you ; they change 
their forms only in the possessive case; retaining 
the same forms in the nominative, and the objec- 
tive cases ; whether the pronoun it or you, be 
in the nominative, or the objective case, is, I 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

presume, to be determined only by the sense ; as 
observed in a previous answer? 

A. — Yes; and by the sense only; and it is the best rule of 
all when properly understood; which, however, you will not 
be able properly to comprehend until you shall have acquired 
a more thorough knowledge of case. See Rules 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 

10, 11, 14, 17, 18, 20, Syntax. 

Q. — Will you give me a few examples in this 
place, that I may be the better able to under- 
stand them as in the declension? 

A. — Yes; the following will, doubtless, do so. 

Nominative. Possessive. Objective. 

I walk, the book is mine, he struck me. 

Thou walkest, the book is thine, who struck thee? 

He walks, the book is his, you struck him. 

She walks, the book is hers, you struck her. 

It walks, its head is brown, you struck it. 

We walk, it is ours, he gave it to us. 

Ye walk, it is yours, he gave it to you. 

They walk, it is theirs, he gave it to them. 

Examine the declension; and see Rules of Syntax, 1, 10, 

11, 14 and 17. See also casern the Questions and Answers. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

Q. — What is a relative pronoun ? 

A. — A relative pronoun is so called, because it always 
relates to some word or phrase going before it, and which is 
called the antecedent ; with which it agrees in number and 
person ; and gender too, if it be thought necessary to apply 
it, and it is better to do so. 

Q. — What words are relative pronouns? 

A. — The relatives'are who, which, and what, and some- 
times that ; their compounds are whoever, whichever, what- 
ever, <fec. 

Q. — What is the principal difference between 
the personal and the relative pronoun ? 

A. — The person and number of the personal pronouns may 
always be known from the pronoun itself; its form shows both 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 47 

'person and number ; but the person and number of the rela- 
tive pronoun can only be known by reference to its antecedent , 
which is always a noun, or something that may be construed 
as a noun, from which we determine the number and person 
of the relative, knowing that the pronoun is the same in these, 
as the antecedent, according to Rule 5th, of Syntax ; as, 
"The master who taught us;" "The men who were here 
this morning ;" " Thou who wast a witness of the fact, canst," 
<fec. See 5th Rule, Syntax. Examine it, and it will soon 
become very clear. 

Q. — What is the word that when it is not a re- 
lative pronoun ? 

A. — It is sometimes a conjunction, and sometimes a de- 
monstrative adjective pronoun. 

Q. — How shall I know when to take it as a re- 
lative pronoun ? 

A . — Whenever it will admit the word who or which in its 
place, and preserve the sense; as, "He is the same man that 
(whom) I saw this morning." " This is the thing that (which) 
I wanted." 

Q. — How shall I know it as a demonstrative 
pronoun ? 

A. — Whenever it demonstrates a noun; as, "I saw that 
man." " Give me that (i.e. thing)." In this sense it has the 
force of the article the; as, that man, the man, &c. 

Q. — How shall I know it as a conjunction? 

A. — Whenever it connects sentences simply, without at the 
same time representing a noun; as, "I expected that he would 
arrive to-day." See Conjunction, and Double office words, 
Index. 

Q. — Are the relatives declined like the personal 
pronouns ? 

A. — The relatives what and that are indeclinable ; the rela- 
tive who and its compounds are declined like the personal ; the 
relative which is varied only in the possessive case. 



48 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The Relative pronouns are thus declined. 



Forms. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Object. 


Simple. 
Compound. 
Compound. 
Simple. 


Who, 
"Whoever, 
Whosoever, 
Which, 


whose, 
whosever, 
whosesoever, 
whose, 


whom, 
whomever, 
whomsoever, 
which. 



COMPOUND EELATIYE PRONOUNS. 

Q. — What is meant by a compound relative pro- 
noun? 

A. — Compound relative pronouns are those which represent 
two words, and sometimes three. Whatever is compound, con- 
sists of two things, at least, and often more than two. 

Q. — From the " inklings before me/' I appre- 
hend some difficulty in becoming able to compre- 
hend, in a sufficiently clear manner, the true merit 
and bearing of these compound relatives; so I 
hope you will be as plain as possible, in their il- 
lustration ? 

A. — Very well ; plainness is my pleasure. But it is neces- 
sary for me again to inform you, that it is of the highest 
importance for you to understand well the cases of nouns and 
pronouns, before you can properly dispose of compound rela- 
tive pronouns. Notwithstanding, I will cheerfully give you in 
this place, a synopsis of the offices and uses of these com- 
pound words. 

The word what may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, 
and also as an interjection; to wit: 

1. "I gave him what (i. e. the thing which, or those things 
which) he wanted ;" (or that thing which.) 

2. What are you doing? 

3. What misery the vicious endure ! 

4. What ! home already ! 

The 1 st what in these examples is a compound relative pro- 
noun, equivalent in meaning to the three words, the thing 
which, or to the three words, those things which, or the 
three words, that thing which; the sentence will make 
sense read with either of the three as given; in the lat- 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 49 

ter three, the word thing may be omitted, but retained 
as understood ; as, that (thing) which; and then we have 
it reduced to two words, that which. Now for the cases ; I 
is nominative to the verb gave, — gave is transitive and must 
have an object; him is not its object, for him is the object of 
the relation shown by the preposition to understood, "I gave 
(to) him what," i. e. that which. What did I give? Answer, 
I gave that (or the thing.) What was that ? Answer, which 
he wanted.- What did he want? Answer, that, (which I 
gave to him). So, that (or the thing) and which are identi- 
cally the same as to what was wanted, and as to what was 
given ; the thing which I gave, was the thing which he 
wanted; so the object of the verb gave, is the word that, in 
the objective case ; and the object of the verb wanted is which, 
also in the objective case. Now you see, perhaps, the word 
what is compound, for it represents two words at least, that 
and which ; the word that takes the construction of a noun, 
for it stands for the noun thing understood ; and the word 
which is a relative pronoun, and relates to the word that for 
its antecedent, and agrees with it, &c. See Rules 5, 6, 11. 

The 2d what in the examples is an adjective pronoun of the 
interrogative kind, and, like any other adjective, belongs to 
the word or noun thing or business (or some such word) un- 
derstood ; as, About what thing, (business or kind of busi- 
ness) are you employed ? or some other phraseology to bring 
out the sense, so as to be parsed. See interrogative pronouns. 

The 3d what in the examples, is simply an adjective pro- 
noun, and may be classed with the indefinite kind, it belongs 
to the noun misery by Rule 8, Syntax. The 8th rule also ap- 
plies to what in the second example. 

The 4th what in the examples, is an interjection, as is also 
the entire line or phrase; "zvhat" in this example expresses 
surprise; and "home already" shows that which occasions 
the surprise, or astonishment. 

The compounds whatever, whichever, &c. have similar sig- 
nifications, and they generally relate to things merely; the 
compounds whoever, whosoever, &c. relate to persons ; and are 
often equivalent to he who, the man who, the person who ; 
or in the plural, the, or those, pr these persons who, or 
whom ; the adverb ever, as attached to the compounds, is lost 
3 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

when the word is divided. See Rules 5, and 6, Syntax, and 
also Tmesis. 

Note. — The pupil will not, I trust, be discouraged in consequence of 
the seeming mystery of these truly difficult words ; If he is about to 
despair, let him remember that "/ can't" has blasted the hopes of 
many ; whilst " I can '' has conquered seeming impossibilities. Take 
courage, and do not try to comprehend too much at once. If the mind 
be oppressed, relieve it by exercise ; that it may be vigorous and alive 
to the subject. Seek always for the sense; the rule will explain the 
sense, and the sense will prove the rule to be true, for the rule is founded 
upon the sense. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 

Q. — What is an adjective pronoun? 

A. — Words of this class of adjectives (or pronouns) are 
so called because they participate the nature of both adjec- 
tives and pronouns. They are not real pronouns, but are 
derived from them. 

Q. — How many kinds of adjective pronouns are 
there ? 

A . — There are four kinds ; namely, 
1st. The Possessive adjective pronoun. 
2d. The Indefinite adjective pronoun. 
3d. The Demonstrative adjective pronoun. 
4th. The Distributive adjective pronoun. 

Q. — Why is one kind called the possessive? 
A . — Because those of this class denote possession, as well 
as restriction. 

Q. — Why is one kind called indefinite? 

A. — Because those of this class represent their objects in- 
definitely ; that is without reference to precise number, 
quantity, or amount. 

Q. — Why is one kind called the demonstrative? 

A. — Because those of this class represent their objects in a 
definite manner, so as to demonstrate the person or thing to 
which they relate. 

Q. — Why is one class called distributive ? 



ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 51 

A. — Because those of this class refer to the individual 
persons or things that make up a number, each to be taken 
separately. 



RECAPITULATION. 

1st. The Possessives are, my. thy, his, her, our, your, their, 
and oiun; as, my book, thy book, his book, her own book, 
their own books, our books, our houses, &c. 

Now look at the declension of the pronouns, and you will 
see that these forms do not exactly agree in form with those 
in the declension, excepting the words his, and her. Her, af- 
ter a governing word, (See Rules 11, 14, 17, 20,) is a personal 
pronoun in the objective case ; as, I love her, loving her, to 
her, by her, &c. But her placed before a noun, as her book, 
her fan, &c. is a possessive adjective pronoun. His, placed 
before a noun, is a possessive adjective pronoun ; but when 
detached from the noun to which it belongs, it is a pronoun in 
the possessive case. See Rule 10, Syntax. Mine and thine 
instead of my and thy were formerly used before a noun or 
adjective beginning with a vowel or silent h ; as, " Blot out all 
mine iniquities. " They have the same form whether posses- 
sive adjective pronouns, before the noun like his and her ; or 
detached from the noun : as, " The book is mine or thine; in 
the latter case they are pronouns in the possessive case, as his 
and hers. See also Rule 10, Syntax. (See Murray, Bullions, 
and many others.) Own and self are used in conjunction 
with other pronouns ; they are used for euphony or emphasis. 
Self or selves, as, myself, themselves, &c. are called com- 
pound personal pronouns. They are compound words, but 
not compound pronouns, as the word what, &c. often are ; for 
they do not supply the place of two or more words. 

2d. The Indefinite are some, other, any, many, one, all, such, 
none, another, few, much, several, &c; as, some men, one 
man, all men, few men, much money, &c. Of these the words 
one and other > admit of the plural number ; as, " The 
great ones of the world. " "He pleases some men, but 
he disgusts others." They also assume the possessive like 
nouns, in their declension; and are then taken as nouns; 
as follows : 



52 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 





SINGULAR. 






PLURAL, 


Norn. 


Poss. 


Object. 


Norn. 


Poss. 


Man, 


man's, 


man. 


Men, 


men's 


King, 

Boy, 

One 9 


king's, 
boy's, 
one's 


king, 
boy. 
one. 


Kings, 

Boys, 

Ones, 


kings' 

boys' 

ones' 


Other, 


other's, 


other. 


Others, 


others' 



Object. 

men. 

kings. 

boys. 

ones. 

others. 



From this, and the 10th rule it will be seen that nouns are 
declined like pronouns ; but that the nouns vary only in the 
possessive case. 

3d. The Demonstrative are, this and that, with their plurals, 
these and those ; this and these refer to the nearest person or 
thing ; that and those refer to the most distant, or farthest 
off; as, " This is true charity; thatis only its image ;" (C these 
books are mine, those are yours." This indicates the latter, 
or last mentioned ; that the former or first mentioned ; as, 
" Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; that tends to ex- 
cite pride ; this, discontent." Yon and which before nouns, 
seem more properly to belong to this class of words than any 
other; as, " Yon trembling coward." " Yon tall cliff." 
" Which things are an allegory." " These things," &c. 

Former and latter, first and last, with the prefixed, though 
often used like this and that, referring to words contrasted, are 
properly adjectives; as, " The former lines," &c, "the latter 
lines," &c. (Murray, Bullions, and others.) The word both is 
classed with the conjunctions, though it sometimes seems to 
take the construction of a pronoun of the demonstrative kind, 
and as such, it is not improperly construed ; as, " Which of the 
two shall I take, this or that? Answer, "Both;" that is, the 
one and the other. 

4th. The Distributive are, each, every, either, and sometimes 
neither. Each signifies two or more objects taken separately. 
Every denotes each one of more than two objects taken sepa- 
rately or individually, and comprehends them all. Either 
means one of the two, but not both. It is sometimes used for 
each; as, " On either side of the river." Neither means not 
either. The distributives are always of the third person sin- 
gular, even when they relate to the persons speaking or those 
spoken of; as, " Each of us, each of you, each of them, has 
his faults." See Rule 19, note 9th, Syntax. 



ETYMOLOGY DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 53 

SECTION VI. 

OF THE VERB. 

Q. — What is a verb ? 

^ # — A verb is a word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer; 
as, I am, I rule, I am ruled. 

Q. — How many kinds of verbs are there ? 

A. — Three kinds; namely, the active, the passive, and 
the neuter. 

Q. — Why is one kind called active verbs ? 

A.— Because they express action ; as, "I rule, or J. govern 
my passions ; I walk, run, jump, talk, sing, &c. Now, each of 
these verbs expresses action ; that is, the doing of something ; 
hence, a word that expresses any kind of action, whether men- 
tal or physical, is an active verb. 

Q. — What is the difference between mental 
and physical actions ? 

A. — So far as the verb is concerned, actions of the mind are 
called mental; as, to think, to love, to hate, to meditate, to ponder, 
io remember, to study, to reflect, to retrospect, &c. Actions that 
involve physical effort, as of the body, limbs, or members of the 
body, or of any portion of the body, or matter, are termed 
physical actions; such as, to walk, to play, to sing, to laugh, to 
work, to ride, to fly, to swim, to sink, to float, to grow, to move, to 
rise, to fall, to snow, to rain, to thunder, to blow, <fcc. Actions 
may be arranged into two general classes ; namely, Physical 
and Metaphysical. 

Q.— What is denoted by the two general classes 
as named? 

A. — Physical means natural; verbs, therefore, of this class, 
represent physical actions. They express the actions of things 
that are under physical laws. Metaphysical means mental, 
pertaining to the mind, as distinguished from matter. Verbs of 
this class, represent mental actions ; i. e., actions of the mind. 

.Note. — It is well here to inform the pupil that often, in poetry, and 
sometimes in prose too, by figure of speech, we attribute actions, &c. to 
things incapable of action ; as well as actions different from those of which 
we suppose them capable ; as, " The earth smiles with plenty." " The 
kettle boils." See Figures of Syntax and Ehetoric ; and the neuter verb 
To Be ; see also Sullepsis. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — Why is one kind of verbs called passive 1 ! 

A. — Because they express passion; or that the nominative 
or subject receives or endures the action expressed by the 
verb, whilst the agency of the verb is referred to another ; as, 
"I am ruled by him." "He is ruled by me." " John was 
kicked by the horse." This is called the passive voice ; that, in 
regard to the active verb, is called the active voice. Thus, " I 
struck John," is in the active voice; and / is an active nomi- 
tive; John is the object. Whilst " John is struck by me," is 
in the passive voice; John is a passive nominative, whilst the 
action expressed by the verb is referred to the pronoun ?ne. 
See conjugation of verbs, Active and Passive. 

Q. — How many kinds of active verbs are there? 
A. — Two; the active transitive, and the active intransi- 
tive. 

Q.- — What is the difference between them ? 

A. — The active transitive verb terminates upon an object, 
or it represents the action as passing from its nominative to an 
object; as, "John strikes Charles;" "I love my friends.' ? In 
these examples, the verbs strikes and loves are transitive ; the 
actions pass from their respective nominatives to their objects, 
Charles and friends. See Rule 11th, Syntax. 

The active intransitive verb expresses an action without any 
regard to an object ; consequently it does not terminate upon 
an object; _as, "John walks;" "James writes; 7 ' "Mary rises 
early." 

Q. — Does the transitive verb ever become in- 
transitive, and the intransitive verb transitive 7 . 

A. — Yes ; a verb is transitive when it passes from its no- 
minative to an objective, and it is intransitive when it does not 
pass from its nominative to an objective. It is not right to say 
a verb is intransitive " because it will not pass" but because 
it does not pass. 

Q. — By what rule, then, shall I know that a 
verb is transitive, or intransitive ? 

A. — A verb is always transitive when it requires an object, 
(or word coming after it,) to complete the sense; as, "James 
strikes Charles" The verb is intransitive when it does not 



ETYMOLOGY DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 55 

require an object, (or word after it) to complete the sense; as, 
"John walks." The same verb may be either transitive or 
intransitive, as the sense requires. See Rule 11, Syntax, see 
also Enallage. " The ball itself rolls along," is intransitive. 
"The ball rolls itself along," is transitive. u The man rolls 
the ball along," is also transitive. " The ball is rolled along," 
is passive. In the first of the latter examples, the word itself 
is only used for the sake of euphony, sound or emphasis, it is 
in apposition with the noun " ball/' and nominative to the verb 
" rolls ;" the verb is intransitive. In the second example, the 
pronoun itself is the object of the verb " rolls ;" the sentence 
represents the " ball" as acting upon itself, hence the verb is 
transitive. In the third example, "ball" is in the objective 
case governed by the transitive verb "rolls," man is the 
agent, or nominative to the verb. In the fourth, or last exam- 
ple, "is rolled" is passive, and "ball," the subject, or nomi- 
native, is represented as being acted upon, by an agent not 
known, or mentioned. 

Q. — How is a passive verb formed? 

A. — A passive verb is formed by adding the perfect parti- 
ciple of an active transitive verb to the neuter verb be. All 
passive verbs are so formed. 

Q. — Why is one kind of verbs called neuter ? 

A. — Because the term neuter signifies neutral; hence, a 
verb designated by this term is neither active nor passive. 

Q. — What then is signified by the neuter verh% 

A. — The neuter verb expresses being, only; consequently, 
in the strict sense of the word, we have but one neuter verb in 
the language; it is the verb be, in some one or other of its 
forms, which are many; as I am, thou art, he is, we are; if 
I be, if I were, I can be, if I was, to be, to have been. See con- 
jugation of the verb Be ; also Neuter verb, Index. 

Q. — What other distinctions of verbs are there, 
besides those already given ? 

A . — Yerbs are otherwise classed into regular, irregular, and 
defective. 

Q. — Why is one class called regular? 

A. — Because those of this class form their imperfect tense 
and perfect participle regularly in ed ; any verb that will form 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

its imperfect tense and its perfect participle by adding ed to the 
present tense, or d only, if the present tense of the verb ends 
in e, is regular: as, 

Present tense love, Imperf tense loved, Per. part, loved. 
" " laugh, " * " laughed, " laughed. 

" " cry, " « cried, " cried. 

Q. — Why is one class called irregular? 

A.— Because they are irregular in the formation of their 
imperfect tense, and perfect participle ; all those verbs that do 
not comply with the rule for regular verbs, as above, are call- 
ed irregular, without regard to any other form, or forms that 
they may assume ; as, 

Pres. tense am, Imper. tense was, Per. part, been. 
" " write, " " wrote, " " written. 

" " spread, " " spread, " " spread. 

Q. — Why is this distinction of regular from ir- 
regular verbs necessary ? 

A . — It is to guard us against the improper use of the tenses 
of verbs, and participles ; were it not for this distinction, we 
should be alternately using the tense form of the verb for the 
participle, and the participle for the tense ; which would show a 
want of that uniformity which the language requires. It is 
harsh and unpleasant to the ear to say, "I written a letter to 
my friend yesterday;" or, " I have wrote ;" " I seen him to- 
day ;" or, li I have saw" Such expressions, as we very well 
know, are quite common ; but their frequent use does not jus- 
tify their being continued. The stability and refinement of the 
language, are too well settled ever to allow innovations so 
vitally at war with its fixed principles, as well as with the 
agreeableness of both sound and sense. So I advise you to 
attend strictly to the distinctions alluded to ; and also to verbs 
generally, in all their forms, offices and dependencies', I assure 
you, the pleasure derived from thence, will richly compensate 
you for all your toil. 

Q. — I hope I shall be profittedby your friendly 
advice; I will now ask w T hy one of the classes of 
verbs, is called defective ? 

A. — The verbs of this class are called defective because, 



ETYMOLOGY NUMBER AND PERSON. 57 

having no participle, they cannot be conjugated through all the 
moods and tenses. . 

Q. — As the defect is the want of the participle, 
without which a verb cannot be conjugated, I 
would ask why a verb having no participle can- 
not be conjugated? 

A. — The participle of the verb to be conjugated, is essen- 
tial to the formation of the compound tenses, and therefore as 
the defective verb has no participle, it cannot be conjugated in 
those tenses. 

Q. — Why has this class of verbs no participle, 
since the verb cannot be conjugated in all the 
tenses without its participle? 

A. — The genius of the language allows the defective verbs 
to be used only as auxiliary or helping verbs ; and for this 
reason they have no need of a participle, for their conjugation 
extends only to the present and the imperfect tenses. See De- 
fective Verbs. 

Q. — What are the compound tenses ? 

A. — The perfect, the plu-perfect, and the second future 
tenses. 

Q. — Why are they called compound ? 

A. — Because, in those tenses, the participle of the verb 
conjugated, is united with the auxiliary verb have or its im- 
perfect tense had, so, the verb is thus composed of two parts, 
and refers to two separate portions of time. Tense means time. 

Q. — What are the other tenses called ? 

A. — Simple tenses; because the verb in those tenses is 
complete in its simple form, and alludes to but one portion of 
time. 

Q. — What are the modifications of the verb ? 
A. — Verbs are modified by mood and tense, number and 
person. 

<?. — Do number and person belong to verbs as 
well as to nouns and pronouns? 

A. — Yes ; but not in the same sense ; for a verb never re- 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

presents the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or 
thing spoken of. • 

Q. — Why then do we apply them to verbs? 

A. — Because the verb assumes certain forms, called inflec- 
tions, or variations, in which it is made to agree with its 
nominative in number, and in person, agreeably to Rule 1st of 
Syntax. When we say a verb is first, second, or third person, 
we mean that it has the form assigned to such number and 
person in its conjugation. 

Q. — Then is there nothing, really, of number 
and person pertaining to the verb? 

A. — If the verb is made to agree with its nominative case 
in number and in person, we easily see that the number and 
person of the verb are dependent upon the nominative ; hence, 
by the verb, we are able to know the number and person of 
the nominative ; though the nominative be not expressed, 
and the same may be known of the verb, by the number and 
person of the nominative, though the verb be not expressed. 
Yet there is something of number pertaining to the verb ; for, 
if I say, " John walks," the verb "walks" expresses but one 
kind of action, referred to its nominative John; but if I say, 
"John and James walk," the verb is plural; for the two 
nouns are both nominative to the same verb, which expresses 
two actions, though of the same kind ; one referred to John, 
and the other referred to James. So a verb always expresses 
just as many actions as there are numbers in the nominative. 
But the person of the verb is nothing more than its inflection, 
agreeing, as in the conjugation, with the person of its nomina- 
tive case. 

Mood. 

Q. — What is meant by mood, as applied to the 
verbs ? 

A. — Mood means the particular mode or form of the verb, 
showing the manner in which the action, passion, or being is 
expressed or represented by the verb. 

Q. — What is tense when applied to verbs? 

A. — Tense denotes the time of the action, passion or being 
represented by the verb, as, past, present, or future, &c. 
Mood means manner of expression in regard to the action, 



ETYMOLOGY MOODS OF VERBS. 59 

and tense means the time when the action occurred, or will 
occur. 

Q. — How many moods of verbs are there ? 

A. — There are five moods; namely: 

1. The Indicative mood, which has six tenses. 

2. The Subjunctive " " " six tenses. 

3. Potential * " " four tenses. 

4. The Imperative " " " one tense. 

5. The Infinitive " " " two tenses. 

Q. — How are the uses of the five moods ex- 
plained? 

A. — They are illustrated as follows : 

1. The Indicative mood is used simply for indicating, or de- 
claring, or asking a question ; as, I write, he writes ; or does 
he write? 

2. The Subjunctive mood expresses action, passion, or being 
in a doubtful or conditional manner ; it implies contingency, 
motive, supposition, or wish; as, " If I write; If he write, 
or, If he should write" This mood is always attended with 
a conjunction implying doubt, expressed or implied, or with 
the idea or notion of supposition, motive, or wish ; and is, at 
the same time, associated with another verb in some other 
mood; as, "I will respect him, though he chide me; "were he 
good, he would be happy ;" (that is if he were, &c.,) "If I 
were to write, he would not regard it." " (I wish,) that 
thou wert," &c. 

3. The Potential mood implies possibility, or liberty, power, 
will, obligation, or necessity, as, "I may write;" "It may 
rain; 99 "I can write; 99 "He would write; 99 "they should 
read 99 The auxiliary verbs, used as signs of this mood, are, 
may, can, must, might, could, would, and should ; though if a 
conjunction implying doubt, <fcc, precede either of these, 
the verb will then be in the subjunctive mood. 

4. The Imperative mood is used for commanding, exhorting, 
entreating, or permitting; as "write thou, 99 or "do thou 
write; 99 "mind ye," (or you, or thou ;) " let us write;" "go 
in peace." In this mood we command our inferiors, exhort 
our equals, and supplicate or entreat our superiors. So these 
things depend upon the modulation of the voice, gesture, &c. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5th. The Infinitive mood expresses action, passion, or being 
in a general sense; it has no nominative case, consequently, 
neither number nor person ; but it always depends upon some 
noun, or pronoun, or other word of similar construction, for 
its subject or actor; as, "to write, to walk, to run." It al- 
ways takes the preposition to before it, either expressed or 
understood, which is considered as part of the verb ; as, "I 
saw him (to) run" "bid him (to) come" &c. 

Tense. 

Q. — What are the names of the six tenses? 

A. — The present, the imperfect, the perfect, the plu-perfect, 
the first future, and the second future. 

Q. — Do these names apply to the tenses of the 
several moods ? 

A. — The names of the tenses are the same in whatever 
mood they be found , with slight modifications as to the sense, 
which should be carefully sought for in the conjugation of the 
verbs in the different moods. 

Q. — What does the present tense denote ? 

A. — The present tense denotes present time : or it repre- 
sents an action, or event as taking place at the time in which 
it is mentioned ; as, I smile, I see, I am seen ; I am, thou art, 
he is, &c. Tense means time. 

Q. — What does the imperfect tense denote ? 

A. — The imperfect tense denotes time that is passed, however 
distant ; or it represents an action or event as passed and finish- 
ed at a certain time past ; as, " They were traveling post when 
I met them ;" "I loved her for her modesty and virtue ;" "I 
was in Cincinnati in January, 1853." 

Q. — What does the perfect tense denote ? 

A. — The perfect tense not only refers to what is passed, but 
it also conveys an allusion to the present time; as, "I have 
finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that was recom- 
mended to me." 

Q. — What does the plu-perfect tense denote ? 

A. — The plu-perfect tense represents an action or event 
not only as passed already, but passed and finished prior to 
some other point of time specified in the sentence ; or it repre- 



ETYMOLOGY TENSES OF VERBS. 61 

sents two past actions or events, one of which took place 
previous to the other, for it always contemplates the time of 
another verb, either expressed or implied, in connection with 
it in the sentence ; as, "I had finished my letter before he ar- 
rived" The verb in the plu-perfect tense contemplates another 
verb, or the time of another verb in the imperfect or perfect 
tense, either expressed or implied ; as, " I have seen him, but 
I had written to him before." " I saw him after I had written 
to him.' ' 

Q. — What does .the first future tense denote? 

A. — The first future tense represents the action or event as 
yet to come, either with or without respect to the precise time; 
as, The sun will rise to-morrow ;" " I shall see them again." 

As the imperfect tense is indefinite as to past time, so the first 
future tense is indefinite as to future time. 

Q. — What is denoted by the second future tense ? 

A. — The second future tense intimates that the action or 
event will be fully accomplished at, or before the time of ano- 
ther future action or event; or it contemplates two future 
actions or events, one of which will take place at or before 
the time of another future action or event; as, "1 shall have 
dined at one o'clock;" " i shall have finished my letter, when 
the mail arrives." 

As the plu-perfect tense regards time or times passed, so the 
second future tense regards time or times to come. 

Q. — I understand that the tenses of the sub- 
junctive mood are six in number, the same as the 
indicative mood ; but I would ask what are the 
four tenses belonging to the potential mood ? 

A. — The present, the imperfect, the perfect and the plu-per- 
feet. 

Q. — Why has this mood no future tense? 

A. — Because future time is vaguely alluded to in the pre- 
sent and the imperfect tenses. 

Q. — How do you explain this? 

A. — It is explained thus: When 'I say, "I can walk" 
the auxiliary verb can implies present ability or power only, 
while the principal verb walk implies future action ; for it is 
plain that "1 can walk-,' does not imply that "I do walk/' 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

■which would be the present of the indicative mood, whereas 
the assertion is equivalent to " I have the power to walk;" 
the power is present, the action, if ever, is future. When 
I say " I could walk,'\ the auxiliary verb could, is the im- 
perfect tense of can, and though it is in the imperfect 
tense, it does not imply that the power, or time of the power is 
passed, but refers to a present knowledge of its existence, with 
reference to future action ; as, "I could walk if I were to try ;" 
here, "to try," is the present infinitive, w T ith a future significa- 
tion, and if trying is to be the test of the power to walk, "to 
try," is future, and consequently, <l could walk " has a future 
signification also, for one can not walk before he tries to walk. 
" I could not walk then, for I was unable." This is the imper- 
fect tense with an entirely past signification ; "I could walk now 
if I were to try ;" this is the imperfect tense, with a present and 
future signification. So you discover that the imperfect of the 
potential is very indefinite, with respect to time. The perfect 
and pluperfect tenses of this mood have similar significations 
with those of the Indicative and Subjunctive. 

Q. — What tense is that assigned to the Impe- 
rative mood ( { 

A. — It is the present tense, and it only. 

Q. — Why has it only the present tense ? 

A. — Because we can not use any other tense in command- 
ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting \ When we do either of 
these, we naturally place the verb in the present tense ; no 
other tense will allow it ; therefore, the mood has only the 
present tense ; it needs no other. 

Q. — Why is a verb of this mood always of the 
second person ? 

A. — Because commands, exhortations, &c, are always ad- 
dressed to the second person, the person to whom we speak or 
write ; you can not command yourself, as the first person, nor 
the person spoken of, as the third person. 

Q. — What two tenses are assigned to the Infini- 
tive mood! 

A. — The present and the perfect only are known in this 
mood. 

Q. — Why has it no imperfect or future tensed 



ETYMOLOGY COMPOUND VERBS. 63 

A. — Because past and future events are sufficiently alluded 
to in the present and the perfect tenses. 

Q. — How do you explain this? 

A. — The present tense is applicable to the past, as well as 
to the future; thus, ".I expected to go ;" the infinitive to go, 
is passed in reference to the time at which I now speak, but it 
is future in reference to the time when I "expected." I wish 
to write now, (present;) I wished to write yesterday, 
(passed;) I wish to write to-morrow, (future). A verb, in 
this tense, has reference to the time referred to by another 
verb, expressed or implied. The perfect tense expresses an act 
or state as perfect or finished, at any time referred to, expres- 
sed or implied; as, "He is said to have written already," 
yesterday, or a year ago," &c. 

In the use of the infinitive mood it is necessary to observe 
that the present tense must never be used in regard to circum- 
stances which imply a finished act ; nor the perfect tense in re- 
gard to circumstances which imply an act not finished. It is 
incorrect to say, " He is said to write yesterday," because the 
language leads us to regard the act of writing as finished, 
since it took place in past time. Nor is it correct to say, "I 
intended, or I desired to have written yesterday;" because, an 
act regarded as perfect or finished, the doing of which, of 
course, is past, can not be the object of hope, desire, intention, 
&c; because these terms lead the mind into the future. See 
Rule 13th, Syntax, and note 1 ; and also Directions for using 
the tenses of the Infinitive mood. 

Auxiliary and Compound Verbs. 

Q. — What are the auxiliary verbs ? 

A. — Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which other 
verbs are conjugated ; they are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, 
can, must. Do, be and have, are principal verbs when conjuga- 
ted alone ; in which case, have becomes an auxiliary to itself in 
the compound tenses. Do, (as an auxiliary,) is only used to 
render the expression emphatic; Be, helps (as an auxiliary,) 
to form the passive verbs, in which case it is no less an auxili- 
ary than the participle with which it is united ; they are mu- 
tual helps to each other in forming one principal verb. The 
rest are used only as auxiliary verbs. See Recapitulation of 
verbs. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — How many verbs are there supposed to be 

in our language ? 

A. — The whole number of verbs in our language, regular 
and irregular, simple and compound, taken together, is about 
4300. The number of irregular verbs, the defective verbs in- 
cluded, is about 177. 

Q. — What is a compound verb ? 

A. — A compound verb is, of course, a verb consisting of 
two parts, or more ; as, have been, will have been ; but a verb is 
also compound when it is composed of a verb and a preposi- 
tion, whether the preposition be united with the verb, or come 
after it, and separate from it ; in either case, the composition 
gives a new meaning to the verb, or one differing from what 
it would have without the preposition; as, (simple,) "to 
throw" (compound,) " to overthrow;" (simple,) " to hold" 
(compound,) " to up\\o\o\ ;" (simple,) "to stand, (compound,) 
"to withstand ;" (simple,) " to look" (compound,) " to over- 
look." But those in which the preposition comes after the 
verb, are perhaps more properly termed compound ; as, "to 
cast" (simple,) means "to throio ;" but " to cast up an ac- 
count/' means to compute it ; therefore up is a part of the verb. 
To fall on, to bear out, to give over, convey very different 
meanings from what they would do, if the prepositions on, out 
and over, were not used. It must be recollected that all pre- 
positions following verbs do not render the verb compound ; it 
depends upon the sense. See Prepositions. 

Conjugation of Verbs. 

Q. — I think I shall derive much useful infor- 
mation from the foregoing; and I now wish you to 
state what is meant by the conjugation of the 
verb ? 

A. — The conjugation of the verb means the regular com- 
bination and arrangement of the several numbers, persons, 
moods and tenses. Or it teaches us how the verb is inflected in 
the moods and tenses, so as to agree in form, with different 
nominatives in number and person. 

The conjugation of the active verb is called the active voice ; 
and that of the passive verb, the passive voice. 

Q. — Will you now give me a few examples 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 65 

illustrative of the agreement of the verb, with its 
different nominatives in number and person ? 

A. — Yes ; and at the same time you will bear in mind the 
difference between the regular and the irregular verbs ; a verb 
is regular when it will form its imperfect tense, and its perfect 
participle by adding ed to the present tense ; or by adding d 
only, if the present tense of the verb ends in e ; the verb is ir- 
regular when it will not do so ; as, 

REGULAR. 

Pres. tense, love, Imper. tense, loved, Per. pari, loved. 
" " favor, " " favored, " " favored. 







IRREGULAR. 








am, 


a 


" was, 


it 


it 


been. 


write, 


tt 


" wrote, 


tt 


it 


written. 



But before presenting you with the conjugation of the verb, 
allow me to present, in measured rhyme, a few ideas illustra- 
tive of the principles involved in its variation ; which, if atten- 
tively considered, will, perhaps, divest the verb of much of its 
mystery, and disclose to your understanding the true secret of 
its conjugation. 

To be committed to Memory. 

To inflect the verb precisely right. 
Keep number and person full in sight ; 
There are numbers two, and persons three, 
And with each, the verb must well agree. 

Six tenses, too, you will have to view, 
Before you'll have gone entirely through ; 
The time of each should be well denned, 
To implant it deeply in the mind. 

Note. — It may be necessary to inform the pupil that the jive personal 
pronouns are used in the conjugation of the verbs, in preference to rela- 
tive pronouns, or nouns, because the personal pronouns always repre- 
sent, in their form, the same person and number ; the pronoun / is 
always of the first person, and in the singular number ; thou is second 
person, singular ; he, she, and it, are each of the third person, singular ; 
we is first person, plural ; ye or you is second person, plural, and they is 
third person, plural, So all the variations of the verb, as to number and 
person, can be shown by these pronouns. A noun of the third person, 
singular number, may take the place of the pronoun ht, or she, or it, and 
the same form of the verb will agree with it ; but a noun of the third 
person, singular number, cannot take the place of any other pronoun, A 
3* 



66 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Bonn, third person, plural, may take the place of the pronoun they, and 
the verb will agree with it. Nouns can take no other place in the con- 
jugation ; for it is never first person ; and when a noun is second person, 
it has no verb at all to agree with it, for it is then nominative case inde- 
pendent. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The figures 1, 2 and 3, denote the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons 
of the nominatives, singular, and plural, with which the verb 
is shown to agree as required by the 1st. Rule of Syntax. 



To Be, (Irregular.) 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He, she, or it is. 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. Ye or You are. 

3. They are. 



Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. Ye or you were. 

3. They were. 



Singular. 
1 I have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 

3. He has or hath been. 



Perfect tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have been. 

2. Ye or you have been. 

3. They have been. 



1. 

2. 



Plu-perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I had been. 1. We had been. 

Thou hadst been. 2. Ye or you had been. 



3, He had been, 



3, They had been. 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 67 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Ye or you shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Kote. — Upon reflection, it will appear sufficiently plain to the pupil 
that the present tense of the indicative mood is often used in regard to 
either past or future time ; as, " I shall go when the cars arrive ; y> " The 
sun rises in the east and sets in the west ;'* " The mail arrives every day 
at 7, A. M., and it leaves at 4, P. M." This use of the tense regards 
customary actions, and those in which the time is sufficiently apparent 
in the context, or general expression. See should and would, {will and 
vxmld.) 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Before presenting the conjugation, allow me again to pre- 
sent a few verses adapted to some of the peculiarities of this 
mood, which it is hoped will be of service to you in prying 
into its nature, uses, &c. The subjunctive mood has two forms-; 
one called the conjunctive form, and the other the indicative 
form ; the latter corresponds to the indicative mood, with the 
exception, that a conjunction expressed or understood implying 
doubt, &c, precedes the verb in the subjunctive mood ; the 
former has a form peculiarly its own, preceded also by a 
conjunction, expressed or understood, implying doubt, &c. in 
connection with future time. See Rule 19, Syntax. 

The first and second verses apply to the present tense, re- 
quiring the conjunctive form of the verb " to be," and of all 
other verbs in the present tense. 

1 . In this mood, as you will plainly see, 
Are other forms for the verb to be : 
For the thing of doubt within the mind, 
Is suspended on the future time. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. If, though, unless, or whether, shows doubt: 
So, if you would know your whereabout, 
Inflect all the verbs, as after should, 

It is said that word is understood. 

(For ilie Imperfect tense of the verb To Be only.) 

3. This tense is true, though strange to say, 
It seems to doubt another way : 

For, " If I were" means I am not, 
So, of the doubt, there's not one jot. 
(For the Mood and Tenses generally.) 

4. This doubting mood then teaches you, 
That doubtful things are sometimes true : 
Would you avoid the moody mind ? 

See, that these lines are timely timed. 

Note. — It is hoped a sufficient apology for the novelty of the verses, 
will be found in their availableness as aids to a correct understanding 
of the inflection of verbs, <fcc. 

The verb To Be, (Irregular.) 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

Conjunctive form. 

Present tense, (or Elliptical future.) 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If ye or you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Indicative form. {True time.) 
Singular. Plural 

1. If I am. 1. If we are. 

2. If thou art. 2. If ye or you are. 

3. If he is. 3. If they are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Conjunctive form, (or Hypothetical form.) 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If ye or you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 69 

Indicative form. {True time.) 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wast. 2. If ye or you were. 

3. If he was. 3. If they were. 
The perfect, plu-perfect and first future tenses of the sub- 
junctive mood are similar in form to the corresponding tenses 
of the indicative mood ; except, only, that the subjunctive re- 
quires the verb to be preceded, in all its tenses, by a con- 
junction implying doubt, &c, either expressed or implied. 
The second future tense of the subjunctive mood is conjugated 
thus : 



Second Future tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been." 1. If we shall have been. 

2. If thou shalt have been. 2. If ye or you shall have been 

3. If he shall have been. 3. If they shall have been. 

All the tenses of the indicative and the potential moods may 
be used subjunctively, by placing a conjunction implying 
doubt, <fcc. before them ; if doubt, condition, &c. be implied, 
it affects the verb the same as if it were expressed; as, "Had 
he been," for u if he had been." 

The latter of the two forms of the verb to be, as shown in 
the present and imperfect tenses of the subjunctive mood, are 
said to be only the "indicative mood used subjunctively ;" but 
this seems, at least, to be equivalent to assigning them a mood 
separate from the indicative ; indeed, they approach so nearly 
the full requirement of the subjunctive mood, that they would 
seem to claim their place in it ; for the forms used " subjunc- 
tively/' are so used on account of the doubt, or condition, &c. 
which attends them, and this doubt or condition, &c. is that upon 
which the subjunctive mood is based. It is not the province 
of the indicative mood to regard things as doubtful; neither 
is it the province of the subjunctive mood to regard things as 
positively true, (except it be the imperfect tense of the latter, 
in the conjunctive form of the verb). There is too great a 
difference in both the forms and meaning of the two forms of 
expression to admit for a moment, in my humble judgment, 
that they are the simple declarations of the indicative mood ; a 
few examples will illustrate their antagonism. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

Contingency. Certainty. 

If I am, subjunctive, does not imply that Jam, indicative. 

If I was, " « " " " I was, 

In the present tense, conjunctive form, " Jf I be," is contingent 
as regards either present or future ; in the same tense, indica- 
tive form, " If I am" is contingent only as regards the present. 

In the imperfect tense, conjunctive form, " If I were" is 
only a supposition, and plainly implies that " / am, not," and 
there is no doubt about it ; this, however, is called the hypo- 
thetical form of the verb. In the same tense, indicative form, 
" If I was" implies it is doubtful whether I really was, or 
was not. See 19th Rule, and notes, Syntax. 

The verb To Be, (Irregular.) 
POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must be. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

be. must be. 

3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 . I might, could, would, or 1 . We might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst be. would, or should be. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should be. or should be. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

been. been. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

have been. must have been. 

S. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must 
been. have been. 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 71 

Plu-perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would or should have 

have been. been. 

S. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would or 

should have been. should have been. 

The verb To Be, (Irregular.) 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou ; or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you ; or do ye or yoube. 

This mood has but one tense ; and the verb in this mood is 
always of the second person. 

The verb To Be. (Irregular.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present tense, To be. 
Perfect tense, To have been. 

Participles. 

Present Participle Being. 

Perfect " Been. 

Com. Per. " Having been. 

The Active Verb To Have. (Irregular.) 

INDICATIVE MOOD. (Active voice.) 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have. 1. We have. 

2. Thou hast. 2. Te or you have. 

3. He hath or has. 3. They have 



7S 


1 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






Imperfect Tense, 


1 

i. 

3. 


Singular, 
I had. 
Thou hadst. 
He had. 


Plural. 

1. We had. 

2. Ye or you had. 

3. They had. 



Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. I have had. 1. We have had. 

2. Thou hast had. 2. Ye or you have had. 

3. He hath, or has had. 3. They have had. 

Flu-perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had had. 1. We had had. 

2. Thou hadst had. 2. Ye or you had had. 

3. He had had. 3. They had had. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. Ye or you shall or will have. 

3. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular, Plural, 

1. I shall have had. I. We shall have had. 

2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had. 

3. He will have had. 3. They will have had. 

The verb To Have. (Irregular,) 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (Active voice.) 

Present Tense. (Elliptical Future.) 

Singular. (Conjugative form.) Plural. 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If thou have. 2. If ye or you have. 

3. If he have. 3. If they have. 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



73 



(Indicative form.) (True time.) 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If thou hast. 2. If ye or you have. 

3. If he hath or has. 3. If they have. 

In the remaining tenses of this mood, let it be remembered, 
the verb have, and all other verbs, except the verb " To Be" 
are conjugated precisely like they would be in the Indicative 
mood, admitting a conjunction of doubt, &c, before the verb, 
except in the second future tense, which, on all occasions, re- 
quires the auxiliary shall, instead of will and wilt, as in the in- 
dicative mood. The present tense of the Subjunctive mood, in 
the conjunctive form, requires no change in the form of the 
verb on account of number and person, but the Indicative 
mood, and the indicative form of the Subjunctive mood, both 
require this change. And remember, that every verb is enti- 
tled to two forms in the present tense of the Subjunctive mood ; 
and that the verb To Be, only, is entitled to two forms in the 
imperfect tense of the Subjunctive mood. In the second future 
tense of the Subjunctive mood, the auxiliaries will and wilt are 
not used at all ; but shall is used all the time. 



The verb To Have. (Irregular.) 
POTENTIAL MOOD. (Active voice) 
Present Tense. 

Plural. 



Singular. 

1. I may, can, or must have. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 

must have. 

3. He may, can, or must have 



1. We may, can, or must have. 

2. Ye or you may, can, or 

must have. 

3. They may, can, or must have, 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, or 

should have. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldsthave 



Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We might, could, would, or 
should have. 

2. Ye or you might, could, 
would, or should have. 



He might, could, would, 
or should have. 
4 



3. They might, could, would, 
or should have. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

had. had. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

must have had. have had. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

had. have had. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have had. or should have had. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would, or should have 

have had. had. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have had. or should have had. 



The verb To Have. (Irregular.) 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. (Active voice.) 
Present Tense. 
Singular, 2nd person — Have thou, or do thou have. 
Plural, " " Have ye or you, or do ye or you have. 

To Have. (Irregular.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. (Active voice,) 

Present Tense, To have. Perfect Tense. To have had. 

Participles. 

Present or Active Participle, Having. 

Perfect or Passive Participle, Had. 

Compound Perfect Active Participle, Having had. 

By examining the conjugation of the verb have, you will dis- 
cover how it is that this verb, is a principal verb when conju- 
gated by itself, but an auxiliary or helping verb, in the conju- 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 75 

gation of other verbs ; for the compound tenses cannot be 
formed without it ; by placing the present tense of the verb 
have before any perfect participle, we obtain the perfect tense ; 
by placing the imperfect tense of the verb have, i. e. had, be- 
fore a perfect participle, we obtain the pluperfect tense ; and 
by taking the perfect tense of the Indicative or Subjunctive 
mood, and placing shall or will or wilt before it, we obtain the 
second future tense. Or by placing may, can, or must before 
the perfect tense of the Indicative mood, we obtain the perfect 
tense of the Potential mood ; by placing might* could, would, 
or should before it, we obtain: the plu-perfect tense of the Po- 
tential mood ; a conjunction of doubt, expressed or implied, 
before any of them, places the .verb in the Subjunctive mood ; 
but the preposition to, placed before the perfect tense of the 
Indicative mood converts it into the perfect tense of the Infini- 
tive mood. If you will continue to examine the conjugation 
of verbs, not forgetting the principles involved, as illustrated 
in the questions and answers on the verb, the verses, and 
this paragraph, I will venture to assert, that in ten days time, you 
will know really more, by far more, of the merits of the verb, 
than is known by hundreds of persons who have made the 
same subject, in some sort, their study for many months ; and 
in many instances for years. And be assured there is no 
guess work in Grammar. So I admonish you to guess at 
nothing. To know a thing is to enquire, and diligently to 
search it out. Examine it well, and you will be richly rewarded. 

The active verb To Love. (Regular.) 
INDICATIVE MOOD. (Active voice.) 







Present Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I love. 
Thou lovest. 
He loveth or loves, 


Plural. 

1. We love. 

2. Ye or you love. 

3. They love. 


1. 

2, 
3. 


Singular. 
I loved. 
Thou lovedst. 
He loved. 


Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1 . We loved. 

2. Ye or you loved, 

3. They loved. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 . I have loved. 1 . We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. Ye or you have loved. 

3. He hath or has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Plu-perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Ye or you had loved. 

3. He had loved. -3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. Ye or you will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

The Active Verb To Love. (Regular.) 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (Active voice.) 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If ye or you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

The imperfect, perfect, plu-perfect, and first future tenses 
of this mood, are similar to those of the indicative mood ; the 
second future tense is constructed without the auxiliary will y 
thus : 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 77 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. If I shall have loved. 1. If we shall have loved. 

2. If thou shalt have loved. 2. If ye or you shall have loved 

3. If he shall have loved. 3. If they shall have loved. 

The Active Verb To Love. (Regular.) 

POTENTIAL MOOD. (Active voice.) 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must love. 1. We may, can, or must love. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can or must 

love. love. 

3. He may, can or must love. 3. They may, can, or must love. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should love. or should love. 

Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you, might, could, 
wouldst, or shouldst love. would or should love. 

He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would 
or should love. or should love. 



Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

loved. loved. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

have loved. must have loved. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

loved. have loved. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Plu-perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would or 

should have loved. should have loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 

loved. loved. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have loved. or should have loved. 

The Active verb To Love, (Regular.) 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. (Active voice.) 

Present Tense. 

Singular, 2d person. Love thou, or do thou love. 

Plural, " " Love ye, or you ; or do ye or you love. 

The Active verb To Love, (Regular.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. (Active voice.) 

Present Tense, To love. Perfect Tense, To have loved. 

Participles. 

Present or Active Participle, Loving. 

Perfect or Passive Participle, Loved. 

Compound Perfect Active Participle, Having loved. 

In the preceding remarks, you were shown the use of the 
verb have, when used as an auxiliary ; I will now introduce a 
few questions and answers illustrative of the moods and tenses, 
which you will do well to consider, as they are designed to 
present more strongly to your mind, the structure of the moods 
and tenses, than was perhaps discoverable by you in the regu- 
lar conjugation. 

Q. — In what mood does the verb take its ori- 
gin ? 

A. — In the infinitive mood; as, to love, to write; this is 
called the radical, or first form of the verb. 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 79 

Q. — What is the sign of the infinitive mood ? 
A. — The preposition to placed before the verb ; as, to love. 

Q. — How do you obtain the present tense of 
the indicative mood? 

A. — By taking the preposition to away from the verb, and 
placing the pronoun / before it, we obtain the indicative mood, 
present tense, first person, singular number ; as, / love ; the 
other pronouns, singular, inflect the verb ; as, thou lovest, he 
loves or loveth. The inflection is the same in regard to all 
verbs except the neuter verb to be, which has forms differing 
essentially from the inflections of other verbs. 

Q. — How do you obtain the imperfect tense of 
the indicative mood? 

A, — By taking that form of the verb peculiar to indefinite 
past time ; as, I loved, I wrote, or / did love, I did write ; the 
latter, or compound form of the verb, is obtained by the 
auxiliary do, or did. See compound verbs. 

Q. — How do you obtain the perfect tense of the 
indicative mood? 

A. — By placing the present tense of the verb have as an 
auxiliary before the perfect participle of any other verb ; as, 
I have loved, I have written. See compound tenses. 

Q. — How do you obtain the plu-perfect tense of 
the indicative mood, 

A. — By placing the imperfect tense of the verb have, (which 
is had,) before the perfect participle ; as, I had loved, I had 
written. 

Q. — How do you obtain the first future tense 
of the indicative mood? 

A. — By placing the auxiliary verb shall or will before the 
present tense of the verb ; as, / shall or will love; I shall or 
will write. See simple tenses. 

Q. — How do you obtain the second future tense 
of the indicative mood? 

A. — By placing the auxiliary shall or will before the perfect 
tense of the indicative mood ; as, I shall have loved ; / shall 
have written. (Be careful with the auxiliaries in this tense.) 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — How do you obtain the present tense of the 
subjunctive mood? 

A. — By placing a conjunction implying doubt, d~c be fore f he 
present tense of the indicative mood, with the auxiliary should 
(understood,) between the nominative and the verb; as If I 
love; If I write, that is, If I (should) lore, & % c. See the 
verses on this mood. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are similar to those of 
the indicative mood, except the second future tense, which em- 
ploys the auxiliary shall, and not will, in all the numbers and 
persons. 

Q. — How do you obtain the present tense of 
the Potential mood ? 

A. — By placing the auxiliary verb may, can, or must, be- 
fore the present tense of the indicative mood; as, "I may 
love ;" "I can write.' ' 

Q. — How do you obtain the imperfect tense of 
the Potential mood? 

A. — By placing the imperfect tense of the verb may, can, 
shall, or will, before the present tense of the indicative mood ; 
as, " I might or would love.'' " I could or should write." 

Q. — How do you obtain the perfect tense of the 
Potential mood? 

A. — By placing may, can, or must, before the perfect 
tense of the indicative mood; as, "I may have loved ;" " I 
must have written.' ' 

Q. — How do you obtain the plu-perfect tense of 
the Potential mood? 

A. — By placing the imperfect tense of may, can, will or 
shall: i. e. might, could, would or should, before the perfect 
tense of the indicative mood ; as, " I might have loved f "I 
would have written." 

Q. — How do you obtain the Imperative mood, 
present tense? 

A. — By placing the radical, or first form of the verb of the 
indicative mood before the nominative thou, or ye, or you, ex- 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 81 

pressed or understood ; as, love thou; or write thou, or ye, or 
you. 

Q. — How do you obtain the present tense of the 
Infinitive mood? 

A. — By placing the preposition to before the first form of 
the verb, in the Indicative mood, without a nominative ; as, 
" To love." This is the radical or root of the verb. 

Q. — How do you obtain the perfect tense of the 
Infinitive mood? 

A. — By placing the preposition to before the perfect tense 
of the Indicative mood, without a nominative; as, "to have 
loved." 

Q, — How do you obtain the present or active 
participle ? 

A. — By adding ing to the present tense of the verb, in the 
Indicative mood; as, loving, writing. See Orthography, 
Rule 8. 

Q. — How do you obtain the perfect or passive 
participle of regular verbs? 

A. — By adding ed to the present tense of the verb, or d only 
if the verb ends in e ; as, loved, favored. 

Q.— How do you obtain the perfect or passive 
participle of irregular verbs ? 

A. — The perfect or passive participles of irregular verbs, 
vary so much in their formation, that it seems no precise rule 
can be given ; on account of which, it is highly necessary to 
study well the list of irregular verbs. 

Q. — How is the compound perfect active partici- 
ple formed ? 

A. — By placing the perfect participle of the verb have, i. e. 
having, before the perfect participle of an active verb ; as, 
" having loved ;" "having written.^ 

Q. — Why is a participle called perfect or pas- 
sive ? 

A. — Because all perfect participles are not passive partici- 
pies, though all passive participles are perfect participles. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — How shall we distinguish the perfect par- 
ticiple from the perfect passive participle? 

A. — By regarding carefully the character of the verb from 
which the participle is derived; for, if the participle be de- 
rived from an active transitive verb, it is a perfect passive 
participle ; but if the participle be derived from an active in- 
transitive or neuter verb, it is a perfect participle, but not pas- 
sive. See Passive verbs, 

Q. — Why is this distinction made between the 
perfect and the perfect passive participles ? 

A. — It is made that we may entertain clear conceptions, or 
correct views in regard to the use of verbs and participles, as 
in the active or the passive voice. 

Q. — What is the difference between the active 
and the passive voice ? 

A. — A verb is in the active voice, when, by its use, we at- 
tribute an action to its nominative ; i. e. in the use of the ac- 
tive verb, we represent the nominative case as acting; as, " / 
love ;" "I write." A verb is in the passive voice, when, by 
its use, we represent the nominative as suffering ; i. e. receiv- 
ing or enduring the action expressed by the verb ; as, " lam 
loved;" " The letter is written." 

Q. — How is a passive verb formed ? 

A. — A passive verb is formed by adding the perfect par- 
ticiple of an active transitive verb to the neuter verb to be, in 
any of the moods and tenses ; as, " am loved ;" " is written ;" 
"to be taken" &c, and it is conjugated as it is formed, as fol- 
lows : 



The Passive Verb To Be Loved. (Regular.) 

INDICATIVE MOOD. (Passive voice.) 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. Ye or you are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 





ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I was loved. 
Thou wast loved. 
He was loved. 


Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1 . We were loved. 

2. Ye or you were loved, 

3. They were loved. 



83 



Perfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. Ye or you have been loved. 

3. He has, or hath been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Plu-perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Ye or you had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. Ye or you shall or will be 

loved. loved. 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been 2. Ye or you will have been 

loved. loved. 

S. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

The verb To Be Loved. (Regular.) 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (Passive voice.) 
Present Tense. {Or Elliptical Future.) 
Singular. [Conj. form.] Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If ye or you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 



84 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect Tense, (Hypothetical form.) 



Singular. 

1. If I were loved. 1. 

2. If thou wert loved. 2. 

3. If he were loved. 3. 



Plural. 

If we were loved. 

If ye or you were loved. 

If thev were loved. 



INDICATIVE FORM. (True time.) 
Present Tense. 





Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 

2. 

8. 


If I am loved. 
If thou art loved. 
If he is loved. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If we are loved. 

If ye or you are loved. 

If they are loved. 




Imperfect 


Tense. 


(True Time.) 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If I was loved. 
If thou wast loved. 
If he was loved. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If we were loved. 

If ye or you were loved. 

If they were loved. 



This mood is entitled to all the tenses of the Indicative 
mood ; they are omitted here because they are similar to 
those of the Indicative, except the second future tense, which 
see. 



The verb To Be Loved. (Regular.) 
POTENTIAL MOOD. (Passive voice.) 

Singu lar . Plura I. 

1. I may, can, or must be 1. We may, can, or must be 

loved. loved. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

must be loved. must be loved. 

3. He may, can, or must be 3. They may, can, or must 

loved. be loved. 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 85 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should be loved. or should be loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst be would, or should be 

loved. loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should be loved. or should be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must 

been loved. have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

have been loved. must have been loved. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

been loved. have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. should have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would, or should have 

have been loved. been loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should have been loved. or should have been loved. 

The Verb To Be Loved, (Regular.) 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. (Passive voice.) 

Singular, 2d Per. Be thou loved, or do thou be loved. 
Plural, 2d Per. Be ye or you loved, or do ye or you be loved. 

The Verb To Be Loved. (Regular.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. (Passive voice.) 

Present Tense, To be loved. Perf. Tense, To have been loved. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Participles, 

Present Passive Participle, Being loved. 

Perfect or Pass. " Loved. 

Compound perf. pass. part. Having been loved. 

See the preceeding questions and the answers. 

Q. — How is the present passive participle ob- 
tained ? 

A. — By adding the perfect participle of an active transitive 
verb to the present neuter participle of the verb to be, which is 
being; as, " being loved ;"" being written." 

Q.— How is the compound perf ect passive par- 
ticiple formed? 

A.— By adding the perfect participle of an active transitive 
verb to the compound perfect neuter participle of the verb to be, 
which is having been; as, "Having been loved;" " Having been 
written." 

Q. — I discover that the same principle upon 
which the passive verb is formed, is also carried 
out in the formation of the passive participles; 
but, suppose we add the perfect participle of an 
active intransitive verb to the neuter verb be; 
what kind of verb should we then have ? 

A. — A neuter verb in passive form; as, " The sim is risen;" 
"I am come;" "He is gone." In such instances, when tho 
sense will admit of it, it is better to use the perfect tense of the 
verb ; as, " The sun has risen;" " I have come;" " He has gone." 

Q. — Suppose we add the present participle of 
an active transitive verb to the neuter verb be; 
what kind of verb should we then have ? 

A. — An active transitive verb ; as, "I am writing a letter •" 
" James is striking him;" "The boy is catching birds." This 
is called the progressive form of the conjugating of the verb, 
which you can soon understand by turning to the conjugation 
of the passive verb To be loved, and by taking the present participle 
instead of the perfect ; thus, I am loving, I was loving, &c; or, 
any other present participle, except being, from the verb to be. 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 87 

Q. — Suppose we add the present participle of 
an active intransitive verb, to the neuter verb to 
be; what then? 

A. — We should then have an active intransitive verb; as, 
"I am walking;" "He is talking; "They are laughing; 77 
which is also the progressive conjugation. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Auxiliary verbs are those used in conjugating other verbs. 
They are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must. Do, be, 
and have, are principal verbs when not used as auxiliaries ; 
willis regular when used 'as a principal verb; as, " to will, 
i. e. to desire that any thing should be done ; as, He wills his 
property to his eldest son ;" " He willed it, &c." and, of course, 
has its participles as other regular verbs ; but when used as 
an auxiliary, merely, it is a defective verb. See its conjuga- 
tion below. The following is the conjugation of the auxiliary 
verbs. 

To Do. 





Present 


Tense. 


Singular. 

1. I do. 

2. Thou dost. 

3. He does. 




Plural. 

1. We do. 

2. Ye or you do. 

3. They do. 


Singular. 

1. I did. 

2. Thou didst. 

3. He did. 


Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We did. 

2. Ye or you did, 

3. They did. 




To 


Be. 




Present Tense. 


Singular. 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 




Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. Ye or you are, 

3. They are. 



88 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Imperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. Ye or you were. 

3. They were. 



Singular. 

1. I have. 

2. Thou hast. 

3. He has. 



Singular. 

1. I had. 

2. Thou hadst. 

3. He had. 



To Have. 
Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have. 

2. Ye or you have. 

3. They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We had. 

2. Ye or you had. 

3. They had. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
Shall. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 
I shall. 
Thou shalt. 
He shall. 



Plural. 

1. We shall. 

2. Ye or you shall. 

3. They shall. 



Singular. 

1. I should. 

2. Thou shouldst. 

3. He should. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We should. 

2. Ye or you should. 



3. Thev should. 



etymology conjugation of verbs. 

Will. 
Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I will. 1. We will. 

2. Thou wilt. 2. Ye or you will. 

3. He will. 3. They will. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I would. 1. We would. 

2. Thou wouldst. 2. Ye or you would. 

3. He would. 3. They would. 

May. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may. 1. We may. 

2. Thou mayst. 2. Ye or you may. 

3. He may. 3. They may. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 . I might. 1 . We might. 

2. Thou mightst. 2. Ye or you might. 

3. He might. 3. They might. 

Can. 





Present Tense. 


Singular. 

1. I can. 

2. Thou canst. 

3. He can. 


Plural. 

1. We can. 

2. Ye or you can. 

3. They can. 




Imperfect Tense. 


Singular. Plural. 

1. I could. 1. We could. 

2. Thou couldst. 2. Ye or you could. 

3. He could. 3. They could. 

4* 



m 



english grammar. 
Must. 



Present tense, must... Imperfect tense, must. 

Though L. Murray, Gould Brown, and others, assign 
these two tenses to this verb, yet it seems to possess only 
a present signification. It is used only in the present and per- 
fect tenses of the Potential mood ; each of which requires the 
present tense of the auxiliary. See Bullions' and Butler's 
Grammars. 



Can. 


could. 


May. 

Must. 


might, 
must. 


Ought. 


ought, 
quoth. 



Beware. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

These verbs have no participles, and are chiefly used as 
auxiliary, or helping verbs; they are so called because by 
their help the other verbs are conjugated. 

Pres. Tense. Im. Tense. Pres. Tense. Im. Tense. 

shall. should. 

will. would. 

wis, (to know.) wist, (obsolete.) 

wit. I wot. " 

wot. \ " " 

methinks. methought. 

May denotes present liberty, or permission. 

Can denotes present ability or power. 

Must denotes present necessity, and is used only in the pre- 
sent and imperfect tenses of the potential mood. 

Ought denotes obligation; and when used before the present 
tense of the infinitive mood, it is in the present tense ; when 
used before the perfect tense of the infinitive, it is in the imper- 
fect tense; as, I ought to go; I ought to have gone. See 
Murray's Octavo Grammar, pages 108, 109, and also the 13th 
Rule of Syntax. 

Quoth is used only in the imperfect tense ; as, "quoth he ;" 
"said he," or "he said." See the conjugation of the verbs. 

In the above list, wis, (to know, ) and wist, wit, and wot, in the 
present and imperfect tenses, are obsolete, except "to wit," 
used in illustrating ; as in the phrase, " I was speaking of that 
event, * to wit,' the recent railroad accident," in which the 
words to wit are equivalent to " that is." The verb beware 
belongs to the Imperative mood. Methinks is said to be an 
impersonal verb ; but the idea "of impersonal verbs has been 
justly rejected by the best of grammarians, both ancient 



ETYMOLOGY USE OF SHALL AND WILL. 91 

and modern. " (Gould Brown, Page 385). Although the 
word is used by good writers and speakers, yet it would puz- 
zle the best of them to analyse it agreeably to any rules known 
to the English language ; its components are a verb of the In- 
dicative mood, Present tense, 3d Person, Singular ; and a 
pronoun of the 1st Person, Singular, in the Objective case, 
agreeably to the declension, though occupying the position of 
the nominative case. It cannot, I think, be called an anomaly, 
for it transcends, properly, no rule of Grammar ; but it is in 
violation of both concord and government. In short, it is sel- 
dom used by poets — frequent only in the mouths of pedan- 
tics, and should be scouted wherever found, or put into 
proper form, and analysed according to rule. Custom, the 
arbiter of language, has never given sanction to it, and but 
little countenance ; for, 

" Its frightful form is of such a mein, 
That to be hated, needs only to be seen. 

SHALL AND WILL. 

Shall and will are used only in the future tenses of the In- 
dicative and the Subjunctive moods. Would and should, 
(imperfects of shall and will,) are used only in the imperfect 
and the plu-perfect tenses of the Potential mood. In the fu- 
ture tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods, the in- 
trinsic meaning of these auxiliaries, seems to be lost in their 
reference to future time ; whilst in the Potential mood, the 
idea of future time, in regard to would, seems to be lost in 
that of volition — the power of choice, to will. The original 
or true signification of should, is not easily determined, though 
it carries with it the idea of obligation, or compulsion ; and is, 
for this reason, used only in the Potential mood. 

Will, in the first person, singular and plural, intimates reso- 
lution and promising ; as, " I will reward the good, and I 
will punish the wicked." In the second and third persons, it 
only foretells ; as, " Thou wilt, or he will repent of that folly." 
" You or they will have a pleasant walk." 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; 
as, r * I shall go abroad ;" "we shall dine at home." 

In the second and third persons, it promises or threatens; 
as, " Thou shalt, or you shall inherit the land." " They shall 
account for their misconduct." " The following passage is 
not translated according to the distinct and proper meaning of 



92 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



shall and will; "Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me 
all the days of my life, and I will dwell in the house of the 
Lord forever ; it should be " Will follow me, and I shall dwell." 
"The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and cried 
out, "I will be drowned, nobody shall help me ;" made a sad 
misapplication of these auxiliaries." 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs shall 
and will, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for 
when the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse for the 
most part, takes place; thus, " I shall go ; you will go," ex- 
press event only ; but " will you go? " imports intention ; and 
" shall I go ?" refers to the will of another. But, " He shall 
go;" and " shall he go?" both imply will; expressing, or 
referring to a command. L. Murray's Oct. Grammar, pages 
88 and 89. 

Noble E. Butler, A. M., gives the following appropriate il- 
lustrations of shall and will. See Butler's Grammar, Page 
107, 8, 9. 

Resolution. 



I am resolved, I promise, &c, that 



II will write. 
You shall write. 
He shall write. 

!I shall write. 
You will write. 
He shall write. 

(I shall write. 
You shall write. 
He will write. 

!I will write. 
You will write. 
He will write. 



Futurity. 



I believe, I hope, <fcc, that 



You believe, you hope, <fec, that 



!I shall be elected. 
You will be elected. 
He will be elected. 

(I shall be elected. 
} You shall be elected, 
f He will be elected. 



ETYMOLOGY USE OF SHOULD AND WOULD. 93 

{I shall be elected. 
You will be elected. 
He shall be elected. 

INTERROGATIVELY. 
Shall I be elected ? Shall you be elected ? Will lie be elected? 

;N"ote. — Doctor Webster says, " shall you go f" asks for information of 
another's intention. Butler says, " It appears to me that this use of the 
phrase is a provincialism." 't Will you go ?" asks for information of 
another's intention/' Butler's Grammar, Page 103. Dr. Webster refers 
the will to the third person ; Butler, more reasonably, refers it to the second 
person (the person addressed) ; the latter of which is not only more cour- 
teous, but it is smoother language. In the phrase above, ** shall you be 
elected f" the will of the electors is doubtless referred to ; but, in cour- 
tesy to the candidate, custom more strongly inclines to the expression 
H will you be elected?" 

SHOULD AND WOULD. 

When a present or a future tense would be followed by shall, 
a past tense is followed by should; if the present or future 
tense would be followed by will, the past tense is followed by 
would ; thus, 

Present Tense. 

(I will write. 
I promise that <You shall write. 

(He shall write. 

(I shall write. 
You promise that <You will write. 

(He shall write. 

(I shall be elected. 
I believe that < You will be elected. 

(He will be elected. 



Imperfect Tense. 

(I would write. 
I promised that ) You should write. 

(He should write. 

il should write. 
You would write. 
He should write. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(I should be elected. 
I believed that < You would be elected. 

(He would be elected. 

In such instances as, " I should be pleased to hear him," a con- 
dition is implied, upon which the proposition is founded ; as, 
" I should be pleased to hear him," (If I had the opportunity.) 

Should and would are used to modify in some degree, the 
harshness of such expressions as, "I doubt his candor ;" "It 
seems to be necessary," &c, into a softer mode of expression, 
by saying, "I should doubt his candor;" (implied, " if I 
could ;") " It would seem to be necessary." These auxiliaries 
do not always imply the non-existence of a thing supposed, as 
may be seen in the above examples. 

Should often denotes merely a supposed future event; as, 
" If I should be elected, I will accept the office." 

Would is sometimes used with a present signification to de- 
note a will or a wish; as, "when I would (will or wish to) 
do good, evil is present with me." 

Will is sometimes used in the present, and would in the past 
or imperfect tense, to denote a repeated, or a customary ac- 
tion ; as, "He will" (or he would) "sometimes spend whole 
hours there." 

In conditional clauses, shall or will follows the present tense, 
should or would follows the imperfect tense, and should have or 
would have follows the plu-p erf ect tense; as, 

"If he has a pen, he shall or will write." 

" If he had a pen, he should or would write." 

"If he had Aaa?apen he should have, or would have written." 

The foregoing, though not in every instance precisely as 
given by Butler, is, I think, equally plain and comprehensive. 
It is a beautiful illustration, calculated to excite the attention, 
as well as to impart useful instruction. 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE TENSES OF THE 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 

All verbs expressive of hope* desire, intention, or command, 
must invariably be followed by the present tense of the infinitive 
mood; as, " I intended to go" not "to have gone." When the 
action or event signified by the verb in the infinitive mood, is 
contemporary, or future, with respect to the governing verb to 
which it is chiefly related, the present tense of the infinitive is 



ETYMOLOGY ACTIVE VERBS. 95 

also required ; but when the action or the event signified by the 
verb in the infinitive, is not contemporary, nor future, the per- 
feet tense of the infinitive is required. We have then only to 
consider whether the infinitive verb refers to a time antecedent^ 
contemporary or future, with regard to the time of the govern- 
ing verb ; when this simple point is ascertained, there will be 
no doubt in the mind respecting the form which the infinitive 
verb should have. For when the time referred to by the in- 
finitive, precedes or goes before the time specified by the other, 
or the governing verb, the perfect tense of the infinitive is re- 
quired, otherwise the present tense is required ; "I intended to 
have written" is therefore evidently incorrect; for how long 
soever it now is, or has been since I thought of writing, * ' to 
write" was then present to me ; and must still be considered 
as present when I bring back the mind to that time when I 
intended to write. 

ACTIVE VERBS— TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 

1. An active intransitive verb is one that expresses an action 
without reference to an object acted upon by it; as, John 
walks ; the bird flies ; trees groiv ; fishes swim ; the wind 
blows; clouds move; the stone rolls: the stars shine; the 
sun rises; the child crawls ; the horse trots; the dog barks. 

2. The active transitive verb is one that expresses an action 
with reference to an object acted upon by it ; as, John strikes 
Charles ; the horse kicked me; the boy killed a bird; the 
bird caught &fly; I love my friends; he has a knife; she 
holds the fan ; it moved the rock ; the wind blows the snow ; 
fire burns wood; the rain wets the earth. 

The difference between the transitive and the intransitive 
verbs may be easily perceived by comparing the office and in- 
fluence of one with the other, as shown in the examples above 
given. All transitive verbs require an object after them, {ex- 
pressed or understood), to complete the sense. No intransi- 
tive verb requires an object after it to complete the sense. 
With the transitive verb, the sense is not complete without an 
object governed by the verb, agreeably to Rule 11th, Syntax. 
With the intransitive verb, the sense is complete without an 
object. 

A few hours reflection, and careful inquiry into the nature 
of those two classes of verbs, will, probably, give you a more 
extensive knowledge of them, than if the subject were merely 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

memorised forty times over. Trust not to memory alone, but to 
the judgment ; wake up the mind, and let it see the difference ; 
turn to the list of irregular verbs, and see if you can tell the 
transitive from the intransitive. Use some noun or pronoun, 
as in the nominative before the verb, and some other noun or 
pronoun, as in the objective, after the verb : and, my judg- 
ment for it, in a short time you will become clear sighted on 
this subject. Try it. 

THE PASSIVE VERB. 

A passive verb is formed by adding the perfect participle of 
an active transitive verb to the neuter verb Be, in any of the 
moods and tenses. Struck is a perfect participle, derived from 
the transitive verb to strike ; as may be seen in the sentence, 
"John strikes James.' 9 Now take this, perfect participle 
struck, and add it to the neuter verb be, thus, "is struck," 
("was struck, 9 ' "has been struck," in any tense or mood,) 
and you obtain a passive verb. Now take the nominative, 
John, as above, and place it before the verb, for a nominative, 
thus, " John is struck," and you will plainly see that the sense 
and meaning of the verb is changed very much from what it 
was in the sentence, "John strikes James" One verb is in 
the active voice, an action being attributed to the nominative, 
" John;" the other verb is in the passive voice ; a sufferance, 
or endurance of action being attributed to the nominative 
"John." You see that the noun, " John," is the nominative 
in both instances ; yet by the change in the verb, from the active 
to the passive, a very material change also takes place in the 
sense, and remember, let the sense be your guide in the con- 
struction of every word in parsing. Turn now to the list of 
irregular verbs as before, and select the perfect participles of 
the active transitive verbs, and exercise your judgment, and 
a little patience, in forming passive verbs in the different 
moods and tenses, and you will soon become familliar with the 
nature and influence of the passive verb. 

REMARKS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS, 
AND THE NEUTER VERB TO BE. 

A verb is a word that expresses either action, passion or 
being ; or it signifies either to be, to do, or to suffer ; as, "I 
am;' 9 "I rule;" "lamruled" The first of these, il Iam," 
signifies " being" or existence, and nothing else ; the second 



ETYMOLOGY NEUTER VERB. 97 

" I rule'' signifies that / perform an action; the third "I 
am ruled," signifies that I receive or endure an action. As to 
the sense and meaning of the verbs here u^ed, there is as 
great a difference between the first and second of these ex- 
pressions, as there is between the second and the third : and 
if it be necessary to have more classes of verbs than one, it is 
equally necessary to have the three classes, as defined above. 
I will, however, give the classifications of a few respectable 
authors ; leaving it optional with teachers to pursue that 
course seemingly most proper. 

Lindley Murray adopts the three classes of verbs, as 
active, passive and neuter : but, as I think, unfortunately for the 
pupil, he throws all verbs that do not require an objective 
case after them, into the class of neuter verbs: as, "Strive to 
improve." "Time flies, 0! how swiftly." "The man is 
happy who lives wisely." "He will not be pardoned unless 
he repent." " Let me proceed." See Murray's Octavo Gram- 
mar; Directions for parsing, Page, 226, ifec. Murray classes 
these italicised verbs as neuter : that is, as those that do not 
imply action ; for he says, that a " neuter verb expresses neither 
action nor yjassion, but being, or state of being ;" which is, to 
my mind, confounding the active verb with the neuter. And he 
also says " an active verb expresses an action, and necessarily 
implies an agent, and an object acted upon :" and this confounds 
the distinction made in regard to the classes of verbs, first 
given ; in this arrangement, we find the active verb associated 
with the neuter, such as "John walks ;" "the horse trots;" 
" the birds sing," &c; these verbs are disposed of by 
Murray, as neuter verbs. Wity is a verb called neuter ? 

Samuel Kirkham, G. Brown, R. C. Smith, and some others, 
also, adopt the general classes of verbs, as " active, passive, 
and neuter ;" but they make a distinction in regard to the ac- 
tive verbs ; distinguishing the transitive from the intransitive ; 
and it is a very important distinction ; for there is certainly a 
great difference in regard to the construction of these verbs ; 
and, though it adds another to the classes, making four 
instead of three, yet it gives the pupil, for whose sake the 
classes are necessary, the advantage of certainty in reference 
to two of the verbs out of four ; for, as the passive verb is 
recognized as a separate and distinct class, and is easily known 
from any other verb, the active transitive is also as easily 
known ; for the difference between verbs as transitive or in- 
transitive, is as perceivable as any others in contrast ; it is, 
5 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

when once understood, always clear. But, unfortunately for 
the pupil, also with Kirkham, G. Brown, R. C. Smith and 
others, there is no line of distinction made to show when a 
verb is to be parsed as intransitively active, or when, as 
strictly neuter; and according to any arrangement of the 
verb, that I have seen, no line or mark of distinction can be 
drawn, either by the pupil or the teacher ; and this, the want 
of this separating line, if I may so call it, gives too much lati- 
tude, and consequently occasions a want of uniformity in the 
parsing of many verbs, sometimes as neuter, and at other 
times as active transitive verbs ; when, in reality, there is not 
a greater difference existing between any classes of verbs, than 
that which must naturally exist between the transitive and the 
neuter verbs ; for instance, "John is in the house ;" "John 
rests to-day ;" "A short ride rests a man, very much, when 
fatigued by walking." No one will for a moment doubt that 
there is an essential difference between the verb is, in the first 
example, and the verb rests, in the third example ; one being* 
the neuter, and the other an active transitive verb ; and ye* 
there is as*great a difference between the neuter verb is, in 
the first, and the verb rests in the second example, as there is 
in regard to any other classification of verbs. Put the verb is 
in the place of the verb rests, in the second example, and 
what kind of sense shall we have ? Tnus, "John is to-day." 
Nonsense ! But Butler, Bullions, Clark, Wells, and some 
others do away with the difficulty of explaining the true 
distinction between the neuter and the intransitive verts, by 
merging them into one class, the intransitive, recognizing but 
two classes, the transitive and the intransitive; even the 
passive verb as a distinctive class, is merged into the transi- 
tive, and seems to some extent lost sight of. So tie very class 
that Murray, Kirkham, Smith, and Brown, call neuter, 
Butler, Bullions, Clark, and Wells call intransitive. In 
which ]atter classification there is still a difficulty to be met, 
in regard to the passive, as well as to the neuter verbs. But- 
ler says, " A transitive verb requires the addition of an object 
to complete the sense;" as " John strikes George;" "He 
excels me." Bullions says, u A transitive verb expresses 
an act done by one person or thing to another ;" as "James 
strikes the talk.*' Wells says, "A transitive verb is a 
verb that governs an objective case ;" as, " Henry has learned 
his lesson" " The term transitive signifies passing over." 
Clark says, ' ' A verb that expresses an action which ter- 



ETYMOLOGY NEUTER VERB. 99 

inmates on an object, ts a transitive verb ;" example, "John 
saws wood." " (xo&created heaven&nd earth" These defini- 
tions are good, as applied to the transitive verb ; but neither 
the definitions, nor the examples under them, apply, at all, to 
the passive verb ; for it is so dissimilar in its nature, and its 
form, that, although arranged under these definitions, its cha- 
racter is not reached or explained by them. But they evade 
the dificulty, by creating a new one, at least, its equal in mag- 
nitude ; to wit : " Transitive verbs have two voices ', the active 
and the. passive ;" both of which are truly and beautifully ex- 
plained ; and the explanations and examples show that they 
are distinct enough to entitle each to a separate class. In this 
classification the neuter verb is lost in the intransitive, and 
the passive, in a good degree, sunk in that of the transitive; 
which I think, by no means, in keeping with what the genius 
of the language requires, and much less in harmony with the 
settled definitions of the verbs. 

By this time the question may be asked as to the 
classification that I would assign to the verb. If so, my 
reply is at hand. With due respect for the "opinions of 
others, I would say, that classification which has been 
longest in reputable use, and most generally received, 
seems to be preferable ; that alterations in the nomenclature, 
or the technicalities in any science, are of but little import, ex- 
cept something important be gained thereby. I see nothing 
gained by the changes last referred to ; the same old difficulty 
remains, and new ones are introduced. That which the genius 
and simplicity of the language require, in adapting its study to 
the capacity of learners, is, I think, the classification adopted by 
L. Murray, Samuel Kirkham, R. C. Smith, and Rev. Goold 
Brown ; and which recognizes the three general classes ; i. e. 
The Active, The Passive, and The Neuter ; and, excepting 
Murray, in regard to the active verb, recognizing the natural 
distinctions of transitive and intransitive. This latter division 
of transitive and intransitive , L. Murray admits to be, at least, 
an " orderly arrangement." "But," says he, " if the class 
of active-intransitive verbs were admitted, it would rather 
perplex than assist the learner; for the difference between 
verbs active and neuter, as transitive and intransitive, is easy 
and obvious ; but the difference between verbs absolutely neu- 
ter and intransitively active, is not always clear. It is, in- 
deed, often very difficult, if not impossible to be ascertained. " 
See L. Murray's Octavo Grammar, Page 60, note. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To avoid the difficulty, then, on the part of the pupil, of de- 
termining whether a verb be active intransitive, or absolutely 
neuter, was the reason why Lindley Murray adopted the idea 
of blending the active intransitive with the neuter verb ; the 
very reason which he assigned for rejecting the division of 
intransitive and neuter verbs, is, amongst others, a strong" rea- 
son for its adoption ; not, however, that the tendency would 
be " to perplex' y the learner, but to assist him; for, as the 
difference between verbs, transitive and intransitive, "is easy 
and obvious ;" so, also, is the difference between verbs abso- 
lutely neuter, and intransitively active," always clear, and easily 
ascertained ; as I shall now attempt to show. 

The definitions of verbs, as given by L. Murray, and others, 
being admitted, (that a verb is a word that signifies either " to 
be, to do, or to suffer ;" or "to be, to act, or to receive an action, 99 ) 
furnish us, upon plain common sense principles, an easy solu- 
tion of this " moot point" As the transitive verb is not in dis- 
pute, I shall confine my remarks chiefly to the neuter and 
intransitive verbs. 

A neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion, but being 
only. I will not say state of being ; for every verb in the Eng- 
lish language expresses state or condition of being, except the 
neuter verb To Be, which is the only neuter verb, proper, in the 
language ; and when considered in its neuter signification, is by 
far the most important of the verbs ; and to preserve it, in its 
neuter signification, in its pure and intrinsic meaning, is of the 
highest importance to a correct understanding of the verb, and 
a strict analysis of the language. 

To confound, then, the idea of simple being, or mere existence , 
with the idea of state or condition of being, would be, truly, to 
confound it with the active verb, and often to leave us in doubt 
as to the true analysis, as well as in uncertainty as to the idea 
intended to be conveyed. To say "the man sits, lies, stands, 
or sleeps in the house," is different in signification, (and con- 
sequently so in construction,) from saying "the man is in 
the house ;" and no one would, for a moment, think the mean- 
ing identical : it would be as well to confound them here, as in 
any other place. What, I ask, causes the difference in the 
construction of these sentences V Of course the sense or 
meaning attached to the verb. And do the verbs sits, lies, 
stands and sleeps, entertain only a neuter signification? Is 
there not something over and above mere being attributed to 
the nominative "man?" Surely there is. Sitting, lying, 



ETYMOLOGY NEUTER VERB. 101 

standing or sleeping, is by its respective verb affirmed of its 
nominative "man;" and each signifies the doing of a particu- 
lar thing, which thing we term an action, and the verbs, conse- 
quently, active; but to say "the man is in the house" affirms 
no such action, state, or condition ; it affirms being, or exist- 
ence, and nothing else. Instances and arguments might be 
multiplied in abundance ; but the above are sufficient to show 
the true place of separation between the neuter and the active 
verbs. 

If any one should still contend that these, and all similar 
verbs are neuter, I have only to say, the sense is not so to me; 
it would be in effect, partly at least, to destroy, or to render 
nugatory, the true purport of the verb To Be ; which, in some 
form, is contemplated in, or incorporated into every other verb. 
See the Passive verb, and also Predicate, Copula and Attribute. 
Index. 

But ft may still be objected that in the sentences, "The 
church rests upon its foundation ;" " The mountains lie upon 
each side of the river;' 5 " The tree stands on the lull ;" and 
others similar, the verbs are neuter because there is no real ac- 
tion intended to be attributed to the respective nominatives. 
Very well, the intention is not the thing to be looked at in this 
particular instance. We are first to consider the literal construc- 
tion in order to know the power and influence of words in certain 
connections ; and then we may deal with the figurative or in- 
ferential. If you wish to obtain the literal signification in re- 
gard to these sentences, use the neuter verb proper, instead of 
rests, lies, and stands; thus, "The church is," &c; " The 
mountains are\' y " The tree is" &c. This gives you the li- 
teral signification ; the other is figurative, and the pupil should 
be taught the difference. A few examples illustrative of the 
figurative style of expression may not be out of place here. 

The word neuter in regard to verbs, means neither active nor 
passive. The same word neuter in regard to nouns, means 
neither masculine nor feminine ; but by the use of the figure 
called personification, or sullepsis, nouns that are really of the 
neuter gender, are converted into the masculine or the femi- 
nine gender; as, "Yonder He comes, the powerful King of 
day, rejoicing in the east." "And Thou pale Moon, fairest 
and favorite Maid of night ;" and by the use of the same figure 
we sometimes attribute life and action to inanimate things ; 
and also by its use we ascribe to irrational animals, and ob- 
jects without life, actions and qualities attributable only to 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rational beings ; as, " The ground thirsts for rain;" The 
earth smiles with plenty ;" also when we speak of " ambition's 
being restless;" or of a "disease's being deceitful." "Such 
expressions show the facility with which the mind can accom- 
modate the properties of living creatures to things that are inani- 
mate, or to abstract conceptions of its own forming. The use 
of this figure is very natural and extensive ; there is a wonderful 
proneness in human nature, under emotion, to animate all ob- 
jects." See L. Murray's Octavo Grammar ; Page 346. 

It is impossible to see how largely the use of this figure en- 
ters into the structure of our language, but at the same time it 
is possible and right for the pupil to see the importance of un- 
derstanding both the literal and the figurative sense of words. 
When we say u The church rests upon its foundation ;" " The 
mountains lie on each side of the river ;" " The tree stands on the 
hill," the verbs rests, lie and stand, attribute to their respective 
nominatives, the ideas of things, of which, in a literal sense, 
they are utter ably incapable ; hence, on the account of truth, 
we are bound to take these verbs in a figurative sense. Fi- 
gures abound in all writings, and more abundantly in poetry ; 
the tendency of which is to render the language more impres- 
sive, beautiful and sublime than the strictly literal. 

It is said that " what is false in fact, may be true in Gram- 
mar" However this may be, it is the province of the Gram- 
marian to render, as far as possible, the truths of Grammar in 
conformity with the true state of facts ; for it is through the 
medium of the Grammar that we communicate this true state 
of facts ; and if the medium itself be false, or not adapted to 
the truths communicated, ambiguity and uncertainty conse- 
quently must follow. In conclusion of this article, I take it 
upon myself to say, that it is incorrect to say that a verb is 
neuter when it is active ; and it is equally incorrect to say that it 
is active when it is neuter ; and the only way to evade the sole- 
cism, is to allow full scope to the figurative use of words ; in 
doing which, we do no violence to the language, and at the 
same time, render plain and intelligible a principle of the 
Grammar that has been more greatly mystified than any other 
calculated to perplex and stupify the mind of the ^earner. 
These are my views, expressed in plainness and candor, with- 
out disparagement to the merit of any of my predecessors, 
purely for the advancement of the pupil, that he may be led 
out of the misty mazes of conjecture, into the open field of 
truth, in the pursuit of an important branch in literature, and 



ETYMOLOGY- — IRREGULAR VERBS. 



103 



into a tangible apprehension as regards the distinctive classifi- 
cation of verbs. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

An irregular verb is one that does not form its imperfect 
tense and its perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present 
tense. 

The following list contains nearly all the irregular verbs in 
our language. Those marked with B, are called redundant 
verbs, because they have a regular form, as well as an irregu- 
lar one. Those in italics are obsolete, or obsolescent, now but 
little used. Those in the first line are in the present tense, in- 
dicative mood ; those in the second line, are in the imperfect 
tense ; and those in the third line are the perfect or passive 
participles, derived from the corresponding verbs in the first 
line. 

Read from the first or left hand line, to the right ; thus, 
Present tense, abide ; Imperfect tense, abode ; Perfect or Pas- 
sive Participle* abode ; throughout the entire list, observing 
carefully the orthography of each word. 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Per/, or Pass, Part. 


Abide, 


?bobe, 


abode. 


Am, or be, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoVe, R. 


awaked. 


Bear, to bring 


forth, bore, bare. 


born. 


Bear, to carry, 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, or beat 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent, R. 


bent, R. 


Bereave, . 


bereft, 


bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, or bade 


bidden, or bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. ' 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, or break. 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Per/, or Pass. Part. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Burn, 


burnt, R. 


burnt, R. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden or chid 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen, 


Cleave, to adhere 


clave, R. 


cleaved. 


CI ave, to split, 


cleft, or clove, 


cleft or cloven. 


Cling, 
Clothe, 


clung, 
clad, R. 


clung, 
clad, R. 


Come, 


came, 


come, 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost, 


Creep, 
Crow, 


crept, 
crew, R. 


crept, 
crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare, to venture, 


durst, 


dared. 


Dare, to challenge, 
Deal, 


is regular, 
dealt. R. 


dealt, R. 


Big, 
Do, 


dug, 
did, 


dug. 
done. 


Draw* 


drew, 


drawn, 


Dream, 


dreamt, R. 


dreamt, R. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drank or drunk 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, 


dwelt, R. 


Eat, 


ate, or eat. 


eaten, or eat. 


Fall 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 
Find, 


fought, 
found, 


fought, 
found. 


Flee. 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 

Fly, 

Forbear, 


flung, 

flew, 

forbore, 


flung, 
flown, 
forborne. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, or gat, 


gotten or got. 



ETYMOLOGY" IRREGULAR VERBS. 



105 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Te\ 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


Gird, 


girt, R. 


Give, 


gave, 


Go, 


went, 


Grave, 


graved, 


Grind, 


ground, 


Grow, 


grew, 


Hang, 


hung, R. 


Have, 


had, 


Hear, 


heard, 


Heave, 


hove, R. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


Hide, 


hid, 


Hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


Keep, 


kept, 


Kneel, 


knelt, R. 


Knit, 


knit, R. 


Know, 


knew, 


Lade, to load, 


laded, 


Lade, to dip is r 


'egular. 


Lay, 


laid, 


Lead, 


led, 


Leave, 


left, 


Lend, 


lent, 


Let, 


let, 


Lie, to lie down. 


lay, 


Light, 


lit, R. 


Loose, 


lost, 


Make. 


made, 


Mean, 


meant, 


Meet, 


met, 


Mow, 


mowed, 


Pay, 


paid, 


Pen, to inclose. 


pent, R. 


Put, 


put, 


Quit, 


quit, R. 


Read, 


read, 


Rend, 


rent, 


Rid, 


rid, 



Perf. or Pass. Part. 

gilt, R. 

girt, R. 

given. 

gone. 

graven, 

ground. 

grown. 

hung, R. 

had. 

heard. 

hoven, R. 

hewen, R. 

hidden, or hid, 

hit, 

held. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knelt, R. 

hint, R. 

known. 

laden, R. 

laid. 

led. 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lain. 

let, R. 

lost. 

made. 

meant. 

met. 

mown, R. 

paid. 

pent, R. 

put. 

quit, R. 

read. 

rent. 

rid. 



106 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




Present Tense. 


Imperfeet Tense. Per/, or Pass. Part. 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode, or ridden. 


Ring, 


rang, or rung. 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, R. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, R. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought, 


Seeth, 


sod, R. 


sodden, R. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shapen, R. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, R. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn, R. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, or shrank, 


shrunk. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, or sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, or sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden, or slid 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Sow* 


sowed, R. 


sown, R. 


Speak, 


spoke, or spake, 


spoken, 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spell, 


spelt, R. 


spelt, R. 


Spend, 


spent. 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 



ETYMOLOGY IRREGULAR VERBS. 



107 



Present Tense. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Per/, or Pass. Part, 


Spin, 
Spit, 
Split, 
Spread, 


spun, 

spit, or spat, 

split, 

spread, 


spun. 

spit, or spitten. 

split. 

spread. 


Spring, 
Stand, 


sprang, or sprung, 
stood, 


sprung, 
stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk, or stank. 


Stride , 


strode, 


stridden, or strid. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck. 


String, 
Strive, 


s tiling, 
strove, 


strung, 
striven. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strewn, R. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, R. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, R. 


sweat, R. 


Sweep, 
Swell, 


swept, 
swelled, 


swept, 
swollen, R. 


Swim, 


swum, or swam, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, or tare, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, * 


thrived, or throve, 


thriven, R. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, or trod. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, R. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Weep, 
Wet, 


wept, 
wet, R. 


wept, 
wet, R. 


Whet, 


whet, R. 


whet, R. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


wrought, R. 


wrought, R. 


Wring, 
Write. 


wrung, 
wrote, 


wrung, 
written. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It will be found a profitable exercise to conjugate all the ir- 
regular verbs through the different moods and tenses, until 
they become familiar to the speech, as well as to the mind. It 
will also contribute very much to a thorough knowledge of the 
verbs, to take them through all their participial forms ; but be- 
fore you proceed to this exercise, you may turn to questions 
and answers on the formation of the moods, tenses, and par- 
ticiples ; a few hours of careful study, there, will richly re- 
ward you for the time. 

After which, you may proceed with the verbs, thus : Pre- 
sent Tense, write; Imp. Tense, wrote; Perf. or Pass. Part. 
written; Pres. Active Part, writing ; Perf. or Pass. Part. 
written; Compound Perfect Active Part, having written; — 
Present Passive Part, being written; Compound Perfect 
Pass. Part, having been written. Remember, you can obtain 
passive participles from active transitive verbs only ; the per- 
fect participles of active intransitive verbs are not passive ; 
that is, they will not help to form either passive verbs or passive 
participles. 



SECTION VII. 

OF THE PARTICIPLES. 

Q. — What is a participle ? 

A. — A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and it 
participates the properties both of a verb and an adiective. 

Q. — How does the participle partake of these 
two natures? 

A. — It being derived from a verb, resembles it in regard 
to action, passion, or being: and when used in a participial 
sense, it refers to a noun or pronoun denoting its subject or 
actor; in this sense it resembles the adjective, for it is the 
office of the adjective to refer to nouns; as, "I saw a man 
standing on the wayside.' ' Here, the participle standing reftrs 
to the noun man, like an adjective, and it also tells what he 
was doing, like a verb. 

Q. — How many kinds of participles are there? 
A. — Three kinds; to wit. The present, the perfect or 
passive, and the compound perfect. 



ETYMOLOGY OF THE PARTICIPLE. 109 

Q. — Why are they so called ? 

A. — The present participle is so called because it represents, 
the action, passion or being, as present and continuing at the time 
referred to by the verb with which it stands in connection ; as, 
" I saw a man beating his horse." 

The perfect participle represents the action, &c. as, perfect or 
finished, at or before the time referred to by the verb with which 
it stands in connection ; as, " I saw a horse badly beaten by 
his owner.' ' 

The compound perfect participle also represents the action, &c, 
as, completed or finished, (hence perfect) at or before the time re- 
ferred to by the verb with which it stands in connection ; and 
it is called compound because it is composed of two participles; 
as, " The man, having beaten his horse very badly, ran for a 
liniment to cure his wounds." 

<?.— Why is a perfect participle also called a 
passive participle? 

A. — Because the noun or pronoun to which it refers, is rep- 
resented as receiving or enduring the kind of action ex- 
pressed by it ; as, in the sentence, "I saw a horse badly 
beaten." All perfect participles are not passive ; they are pas- 
sive only when they have a passive signification. The sense 
alone must determine. 

Q. — Wherein does the active participle differ 
from the passive ? 

A. — The active participle like the active verb, represents the 
noun or pronoun referred to by it, as performing an action, 
or as having performed an action ; as the participles standing, 
beating, and having beaten, as shown above. See page 86. 

Q. — When is a participle neuter ? 

A. — When it is derived from a neuter verb ; really the only 
neuter participles are those derived from the verb To Be ; for, 
in the strict sense of the term, to be is the only neuter verb in 
the language, (See the verb To be, Index), and its partici- 
ples are these : present neuter participle being ; perfect neuter 
participle been , and compound perfect neuter participle having 

m. 

Q. — What are the peculiarities of the participle 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as to government, construction, &c, in senten- 
ces, &c ? 

A. — For the government of the participle, See Rule 14th, 
of Syntax, and for the peculiarities of the same, See Notes 
and Examples under the same rule. 



SECTION VIII. 
OF THE ADVERB. 

Q. — What is an adverb ? 

A. — An adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a 
verb, participle, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Q. — In what sense do adverbs modify verbs? 

A. — Adverbs tell the time of an action or event, also the 
place, the manner, and the cause; as, " Where did he go ?" 
When? Bow? Why? How often? 

Q. — How do adverbs affect or modify partici- 
ples? 

A. — Participles are modified in the same manner as verbs 
are ; as, "I saw a man walking slowly along the road." 

Q. — How are adjectives modified by adverbs ? 

A. — Adjectives are modified to show the degrees of compari- 
son ; as, positive holy, comparitive more holy, superlative 
most holy . See Index, comparison of adjectives. 

Q. — How are adverbs modified by adverbs ? 

A. — Adverbs admit of degrees of comparison like adjec- 
tives ; as, very fast, or very slowly; wisely, more wisely, 
most wisely. 

Q. — What are the different kinds of adverbs? 
A. — Adverbs, though numerous, may be reduced to certain 
classes ; the chief of which are as follows : 

1. Of number; as, once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. Of order; as first, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, lastly, 
finally, &c. 

3. Of place ; as, here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, 
somewhere, herein, whither, hither, upward, backward, hence, 
thence, withersoever, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY OF THE ADVERB. Ill 

4. Of Time Present ; as, now, to-day, &c. 

5. Of Time Past; as, already, before, lately, yesterday, 
heretofore, hitherto, lon^ since, lono; ao*o, (fee. 

6. Of Time to Come ; as, to-morrow, not yet, hereafter, 
henceforth, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, 
straightway, &c. 

7. Of Time Indefinite', as, oft, often, ofttimes, sometimes, 
soon, seldom, daily, always, when, then, never, again, &c. 

8. Of Quantity ; as, much, little, sufficiently, how much, 
how great, abundantly, &c. 

9. Of Manner or Quantity; as, wisely, foolishly, justly, 
quickly, slowly, (fee. Adverbs of quality are the most nume- 
rous ; and they are generally formed by adding ly to an ad- 
jective or participle ; or by changing le'mto ly; as, bad, badly, 
cheerfully, ably, admirably. 

10. Of Doubt ; as, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, &c. 

11. Of Affirmation ; as, verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubt- 
less, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, (fee. 

12. Of Negation; as, nay, no, not, by no means, not at 
all, in nowise, (fee. 

13. Of Comparison; as, more, most, better, best, worse, 
worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, (fee. 

14. Of Interrogation; as, why? how? wherefore? whi- 
ther? (fee. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many 
which are formed by a combination of the prepositions with 
the adverbs of place ; as, hereof thereof, whereof, hitherto, 
thereby, herewith, herein, whereupon, thereon, ^c. There are 
others which suffer no change; as, "he rides about;' 1 "he 
was near falling ;" and others composed of nouns and the let- 
ter a, instead of at, an, <fyc; as, aside, athirst, afoot, asleep, 
abroad, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, (fee. 

Q. — What use is there for adverbs of time, 
when the verbs are provided with tenses to de- 
note the time ? 

A. — The tenses answer a valuable purpose in marking the 
general divisions of time ; but they are not sufficiently definite 
to mark the time of the verb with such precision as is often re- 
quired; as, "I was there yesterday ;" "I have been there 
to-day ;" *"* I will be there to-morrow." 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — Are there other words, not recognized as 
adverbs, that have a similar influence on verbs, 
participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ? 

A. — Yes. Phrases, Abridged Propositions , Adjuncts , &c, 
for the definition and influence of which, see these items. 



SECTION IX. 
OF THE PREPOSITION. 

Q. — What is a Preposition? 

A. — A Preposition is a word used to connect other words, 
and thereby show the relation between them ; as, They went 
from London to York;" " The love of money." 

Q. — What are the names of the terms of rela- 
tion, or the words connected by a Preposition ? 

A. — The word before, or to the left of the preposition, is 
called the antecedent term of relation; and the word to the 
light, or after the preposition, is called the subsequent term of 
relation ; as, in the sentence above, the verb went is the an- 
tecedent term of relation; and the nouns, London and York, 
are the subsequent terms of relation. Better shown thus : 

r™ . \ from London 

Tney went j tQ j^ 

in which the verb went is the antecedent term ; London 
and York are the subsequent terms. Each preposition forms 
an adjunct to the verb went. 

Q. — What classes of words do Prepositions 
usually connect ? 

A. — The antecedent term of relation is usually a noun, a 
pronoun, an adjective, a verb, or an adverb ; as, " The waters 
of Jordan ;" " He with the book in his hand ;" " It is good 
for me;" (i Pray for us;" "He acts consistently with his 
principles." The subsequent term is usually a noun or 
pronoun. 

The question might be asked, does the preposition with re- 
ally refer to the pronoun he, as the antecedent term of rela- 



ETYMOLOGY OF THE PREPOSITION. 113 

tion, or to some other word understood ? For my own part, 
though I find a different opinion expressed by respectable 
authors, I can conceive of no relation between the pronoun he, 
and the noun book ; but I can see, I think, a natural relation 
between the participle standing, understood, (sitting or lying 
or something similar,) and the noun book ; thus, "He stand- 
ing with the book in his hand ;" and this, to my understand- 
ing, renders the sense a little fuller ; the sentence is, as 
yet, far from being complete ; " Standing with the book in his 
hand," is only an abridged proposition, which is equivalent to 
the relative clause, " who is standing with the book in his hand" 
the influence of which is to modify the pronoun he, which 
must have a case ; for, as yet, no proposition is made in regard 
to this pronoun ; yet there is enough of its texture given to 
show, at least, the kind of sentence that must follow. So we 
complete the sentence thus : " He (who is standing with the book 
in his /tand) is the man to whom I referred you this morning." 
This, then, shows that the preposition with is in a different 
clause, and consequently cannot show a relation between the 
pronoun he, and the noun book. 

A similar query arises in regard to the preposition with, 
and the adverb consistently ; for, " with his principles" has 
as direct reference to the verb acts, as does the adverb consis- 
tently. If we give the sentence a little turn in the phraseo- 
logy, still preserving the sense, we may show that the preposi- 
tion with, connects either the verb or an adjective, as its antece- 
dent term, and the noun principles as the subsequent term ; 
thus, "He acts with (regard to) his principles, very consis- 
tently ;" or, " He acts in a manner that is quite consistent 
with his principles." 

In looking for the antecedent term of relation, as shown by 
the preposition, care should be taken that the pupil understand 
the full and entire scope of the sentence. The nature of the 
preposition being well understood, no difficulty need remain 
as to the antecedent term of its relation. 

Q. — Are there not other terftis more compre- 
hensive in regard to the preposition, than those 
of antecedent and subsequent? 

A. — Yes; The prr position and its regimen are called the 
adjunct of the antecedent term ; and the antecedent term of re- 
lation as related to its adjunct may be called the principal 

5* 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

term of relation ; the object of the preposition still being re- 
garded as the subsequent term. 

Q. — What am I to understand by its regiment 

A.- — The regimen of the preposition, consists of the subse- 
quent time, and all the words qualifying it, in any sense 
"whatever. 

Q. — What is an adjunct ? 

A. — An adjunct is either a word or words, added or joined 
to another word or phrase, to explain or qualify it, or it is 
the preposition and its regimen united, whether simple or com- 
pound. 

Q. — What is a compound adjunct ? 

A. — A compound adjunct is two or more adjuncts formed by 
prepositions in succession, each adjunct qualifying some particu- 
lar word as its antecedent term, and the whole forming a phrase, 
or a part of a sentence, qualifying some preceding word as its 
principal, or antecedent term of relation; as, "It is consis- 
tent with the character of a man of honor" Here, "of 
honor/ 9 is the adjunct of the noun "man; " of a man of 
honor," is a compound adjunct of the noun, character ; and 
the whole, with the character of a man of honor, is a com- 
pound adjunct of the adjective consistent. 

Q. — What is a simple adjunct? 
A. — Each preposition with its regimen, as shown in the 
compound adjunct above, is, of course, a simple adjunct. 

Q. — What is the effect or influence of adjuncts? 

A. — To qualify in some sense or other the principal, or an- 
tecedent term of relation, as shown in the compound adjunct 
above, qualifying the adjective consistent; whilst it, the adjec- 
tive, qualifies the noun represented by the pronoun it, as a 
thing. 

Q. — Suppose the antecedent term be a noun% 

A. — Then the adjunct qualifies the noun directly in the 
sense of an adjective. 

Q. — Suppose the antecedent be an adverb ? 

A. — Then it, the adjunct, qualifies the adverb, whilst the 
adverb, or the whole, as a compound adjunct, qualifies a verb, 
participle, adjective, or another adverb ; the antecedent term 



ETYMOLOGY OF THE PREPOSITION. 115 

of relation still qualifying something else, which finally quali- 
fies either the subject of a proposition, in the sense of an ad- 
jective or the predicate of a proposition, in the sense of an ad- 
verb, 

Q. — Suppose the antecedent be a verb ? 
j\ , — Then the adjunct qualifies the verb in the sense of an 
adverb. 

Q. — Does not the same word, or antecedent 
term of relation sometimes have several adjuncts^ 

A. — Yes ; inasmuch as the same word, or antecedent term, 
is sometimes modified in different ways, it requires as many 
differently qualifying words, or adjuncts; as, He went from 
Boston, by railroad, to New York, in eight hours. Or thus : 

{from Boston, — is equivalent to an adverb of place. 
to New York, — is " " " place. 

by railroad, — is " " " manner. 

in eight hours,— is " " " time. 

In this illustration, the verb went is the antecedent term of 
relation shown by the prepositions from, to, by, and in, each 
with its regimen, forming an adjunct which qualifies the verb 
tvent, in the sense of an adverb. Bullions' Gram., p. 108. 
Again : 

' with rapidity, — adverb of manner ; as how ? 
under the fence, — adv. of place ; as, where ? 
through the yard, — " " " 

past the house, — " " " 

into the river, — " " " 

See Butler's Gram, p, 115. 

Q. — By what means can I always know the an- 
tecedent term of relation, referred to by the pre- 
position ? 

A. — By a careful attention to the office and use of the prepo- 
sition, as well as the qualifying influence of words and phrases 
generally, you will be enabled soon to seethe force, or qualify- 
ing influence of adjuncts, and all other qualifying words. This, 
in itself, is bound to direct your mind to the antecedent term of re- 
lation. And here I will inform you, that in every sentence, 
there are two important parts, to wit ; the Subject and the Pre- 
dicate; and every other word \ adjunct, or phrase in the sentence, 



The stream runs* 



116 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



is put there to qualify, in some sense or other, either the Subject, 
in the sense of an adjective, or the Predicate, in the sense of 
an adverb. 

Q. — What am I to understand by the Subject, 
and the Predicate ? 

A. — The Subject is that of which something is said or af- 
firmed. The Predicate is that which affirms, including the 
thing affirmed of the subject ; thus, " The love of money is the 
root of evil," in which "the love of money" is the Subject, 
and "is the root of evil" is the Predicate ; the adjunct "of 
money," qualifies the noun "love;" and " of evil," qualifies 
the noun "root" Each of these adjuncts has the force of 
an adjective. For more upon this subject, see Logical Parsing, 
Index. 

Q. — What words are usually prepositions ? 

A . — The following list embraces most of the prepositions in 
common use. 

About, 

Above, 

Across, 

After, 

Against, 

Along, 

Amid, ) 

Amidst, \ 

Among 



Amongi 
Around, 
At, 
Athwart, 



st,} 



Behind, 
Below, 
Beneath, 
Beside, ) 
Besides,) 
Between,) 
Betwixt, ) 
Beyond, 

Concerning, 
Down, 
During, 
Except, 



Excepting, 
For, 


To, 
Towards, ) 


From. 


Toward, \ 


In, 


Under, 


Into, 


Underneath, 


Of, 


Unto, 


On, 
Over, 

Respecting^ 
Round, 


Up, 
Upon, 
With, 
Within, 


Since, 


Without, 


Through, 


Worth. 


Throughout, 





Those in the above list ending in ing, are sometimes parti- 
ciples, and sometimes prepositions ; when they are referable 
to an agent or actor, they should be parsed as participles, 
otherwise, they are to be parsed as prepositions. 

The word worth, I have classed with the prepositions, be- 
cause, to my mind, it has the force of an adjective and a pre- 
position ; it seems to refer to the character or quality of a 
thing, like an adjective, and it requires the objective case after 
it, like a preposition. I, therefore, see no impropriety in cal- 
ling it a Prepositional Adjective, We have adverbial con- 



ETYMOLOGY OF THE PREPOSITION. 117 

junctions, and participial adjectives, <fcc, words of double 
office, not a particle more clearly so than this word worth, 
which means worthy of; supplying the place of an adjective 
and also of & preposition. If the word be admissable in this 
sense, (and I think it is,) many of those expressions looked 
upon as anomalous, would be seen to come within the per view 
of the rules of Syntax. 

Q. — Are the words in the above list always 
used as Prepositions? 

A. — No ; besides those ending in ing, alluded to in the 
remarks above, there are others often used as adverbs. 

Q. — How shall I know when to parse them as 
adverbs, and when as prepositions ? 

A. — When they take a noun or pronoun in the objective 
case after them, they are to be parsed as prepositions ; other- 
wise as adverbs. In all cases when you can supply a sub- 
sequent term as an object of the relation shown, it should be 
parsed as a preposition ; and you will also notice that the ad- 
junct thus formed by it, has the effect of an adverb, and quali- 
fies the antecedent term ; so the sense is the same in either 
case; as, "He rides about/ 9 Here, about is an adverb, unless 
you supply the ellipsis, and furnish a proper object of relation; 
as, " He rides about town." Here aboutis a preposition, and the 
adjunct " about town," still performs the office of an adverb, 
and qualifies the verb rides as the antecedent term. 

Q. — Is there any instance in which these 
words loose both their prepositional and adverbial 
force ? 

A . — Yes ; sometimes the preposition is taken as a part of 
the verb, and the two form a compound verb; as, -■" To cast 
means to throw ; but " To cast up" an account, means to com- 
pute it. So, also, " To hold out," " To fall on" are diffe- 
rent in sense from "to hold," "to fall" — the preposition 
gives a new and entirely different meaning to the expression. 
The preposition to, when placed before a verb, is the sign of 
the infinitive mood, and is taken as a part of the verb ; as, " to 
walk;" "tojly" See compound verbs. 

Q. — What is a compound preposition? 

A. — A compound preposition is & phrase in which two pre- 
positions necessarily come together, in order to convey the 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sense, or .the idea intended; as, " He has removed from 
within the limits of this State ;" " They take pronouns after 
them instead of taking them before them." " Drive the cat 
from under the table ;" " Scare the birds from off the house." 

Q. — When two prepositions come together, are 
they taken as compound ? 

A . — Not always ; for the first one of the two may be taken 
as a part of the verb, if the sense so require it ; or it may be 
taken as an adverb ; as, 

" Pride, where wit fails, steps in to our defence, 
And Jills up all the mighty void of sense." 

In the first line, in and to are seperate words ; in, may be 
taken as an adverb qualifying the verb steps, or it may be ta- 
ken as a part of the verb, rendering it compound; in either case 
the sense will be the same. In the second line, up may be 
taken in the same sense, either as a part of the verb, or as an 
adverb, and the sense remains the same ; it is used merely 
for euphony. 



SECTION X. 
OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

Q. — What is a conjunction? 

A. — A conjunction is a word chiefly used to connect sen- 
tences, so as out of two or more simple sentences to make but 
one compound sentence ; sometimes it connect words only. 

Q. — How many kinds of conjunctions are there ? 
A. — Two ; to- wit : 

1. The copulative — and, if, that, both, then, since, for, be- 
cause, therefore, wherefore and a few others. 

2. The Disjunctive — but, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, un- 
less, whether, yet, notwithstanding, either, neither and a 
few others. 

Q. — What is the difference between the two 
kinds ? 

A.— The copulative conjunction connects sentences or words, 



ETYMOLOGY THE CONJUNCTION. 119 

in the same construction, or affirmatively; as, "John and 
. James are going away ;" " I will go, if you will go with me." 
The disjunctive conjunction connects sentences or words, in 
opposite construction, or disjunctively; as, "John or James is 
going away;" "I will go, but you will not go." See 2d 
and 3d Rules of Syntax and notes. 

Q. — What is a compound sentence? 

A. — A compound sentence is two or more simple sentences 
joined together by a conjunction. See Sentences, Index. 

Q. — What words are usually connected by con- 
junctions ? 

A. — Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Yerbs, Participles, and 
Adverbs. See 18th Rule of Syntax, and Notes. 

Q. — What are adverbial conjunctions ? 

A. — They are those words that perform the office of con- 
junctions, in connecting sentences, and also the office of ad- 
verbs, in qualifying a verb or participle in each sentence con- 
nected by them; as, "I will go when he arrives." "I 
found the knife where he lost it." " He came in while I was 
speaking." "I know not whence they came, nor do I know 
whither they are going." 

Q. — What is the peculiarity of these double- 
office words? 

A. — The adverbial conjunction, or conjunctive adverb, in 
its double-office capacity, uniformly stands for two adjuncts, 
one of which contains a relative pronoun, and the other contains 
its antecedent ; as, "I will go when he arrives ;" in this sen- 
tence the word when is equivalent to "at the time at which;* 9 
thus, " I will go at the time at which he arrives ;" the first ad- 
junct, "at the time" modifies the verb will go ; the other, u at 
which" modifies the verb "arrives;" (or shall arrive). Again, 
"I know not how it is done;" in this sentence, ''how" is 
equal in sense to the words the manner in which ;" the first, 
"the manner, 9 ' is the object of the verb "know; 99 and the 
second, "in which" is the adjunct of "is done;" and modi- 
fies it in the sense of an adverb of manner , as, it is done 
badly, well, correctly, indifferently, &c. 

Q. — Are there many of this class of words ? 
A. — A few only; the following are the most general, to 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wit: When, where, whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, 
until, before, otherwise, while, wherefore, therefore. You would 
do well to consult a dictionary in reference to all such, words. 

Q. — Are there any other words similar in their 
offices to those just given? 

A. — Yes ; The relative pronouns, as you will see by examin- 
ing them, also perform the office of conjunctions, as well as 
the office of pronouns. 

Q. — Will you give me a few examples illustra- 
tive of this? 

A, — Yes; " The man who met us, will be here „ to day." 
The relative pronoun who in this sentence introduces a sen- 
tence descriptive of the man who will be here to-day, and it is 
called the relative clause, or the dependent clause; relative, 
because it is introduced by a relative pronoun ; and it is called 
dependent, because it depends upon the other (the leading or 
independent clause), for its sense or meaning; at the same 
time, it (the relative clause) as a complete sentence, qualifies 
the noun man, in the sense of an adjective ; as is the case with 
the relatives who, which, what and that, in all cases, except 
when used in asking questions. Examples. 

The master who taught us, will be here to-day. 

The horse which he sold yesterday, is dead. 

This is what (i. e,, the thing which) I wanted. 

The knife that I gave him, is lost. 

In all these sentences, the relative pronoun performs a 
double office. See Rule 5th of Syntax — also Bullions' Gram, 
p. 51 and 52. See also Logical Parsing, and Compound Sen- 
tences. 



SECTION XI. 
OF THE INTERJECTION. 

Q. — What is an Interjection ? 

A. — An interjection is a word or phrase used to express 
the passion, or some sudden emotion of the speaker ; as, ! 
oh ! ah ! alas ! " 0/ virtue ! how amiable thou art ! " " Oh! 
I have alienated my friend ; Alas! I fear for life 1 " 



ETYMOLOGY INTERJECTION. 121 

Q. — Have Interjections any grammatical con- 
nection with other parts of speech ? 
A, — None, whatever. 

Q. — Why, then, do they " require " the objec- 
tive case of the pronoun of the first person, alter 

them ? 

A. — They do not require the objective or any other partic- 
ular cases after them. 

Q. — How, then, do you account for the objec- 
tive case of the first person after the interjection ; 
as, O, me! Ah, me! Oh, me! 

A. — On the same principle that we account for the nomi- 
native case of the second person after it ; as, 0, Thou! Ah, 
Thou! Oh y Thou! 

Q.— How is that ? 

A. — By supplying the proper ellipses. In these, and simi- 
lar expressions, it is implied that some sad circumstance has 
' befallen the person speaking ; as, ! pity me, for I am in 
grief." "Ah ! woe is to me." "0 ! save me." Oh, admits of 
a similar construction. The same interjections used in refe- 
rence to the second person, thou, ye, or you. imply a similar 
expression of grief, joy, or surprise ; and the pronoun is either 
in the nominative case independent, or nominative to a verb 
understood. 

Q. — But do not some authors say the interjec- 
tions O ! oh ! and ah ! require the objective case 
of a pronoun in the first person, and the nomina- 
tive case in the second and third after them ? 

A. — Yes ; but I do not apprehend that they say so on the 
account of any governing property of the interjection ; (at least 
I would hope so,) but on account of the ellipses to be supplied ; 
for, if the requirement be found to belong to the interjection, 
then it would also require the objective of the second and third 
persons. The want of uniformity in the requirement of a par- 
ticular case after it, is sufficient proof of the absence of a go- 
verning influence in the interjection. The position here as- 
sumed in regard to the interjection, is also sustained by 
6 



m 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Bullions, Butler, Wells, Clark, G. Brown, and many others. 
Q* — In what sense, then, are we to view inter- 
jections ; or what construction is to be put upon 
them? r r 

■ A— We are to view them simply as expressions of the 
mind, when it is suddenly or powerfully moved by the influ- 
ence of fear, joy, grief, surprise, terror, &c, too deep and power- 
ful to be expressed by mere words ; as a groan too deep for 
utterance, sometimes indicates more than could be expressed 
in a whole volume. It is a language peculiar to the mind 
under excitement, too sudden and comprehensive to be incor- 
porated into ordinary language, either spoken or written ; and, 
as a consequence, cannot be brought under the requirements 
of the rules of Syntax. 

LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Arranged according to the emotions which they are gene- 
rally intended to indicate : 

, (1.) Of Joy; eigh! hey! io ! (2.) Of Praise; well- 
done! good! bravo! (3.) Of Sorrow ; oh ! ah! alas! alack! 
hoo! welladay! (4.) Of Wonder ; heigh! ha! strange! in- 
deed ! whew ! hoity toity ! hoida ! my stars ! (5.) Of Wish- 
ing, Earnestness or Direct Address ; (often with a noun or pro- 
noun in the nominative case independent) O! (6.) Of Pain 
or Fear; Oh! dear ! ah! eh! (7.) Of Contempt; fudge! 
pugh! poh! pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph! (8.) Of 
Aversion; foh ! faugh! fie! f y ! foy ! off! begone! avaunt ! 
whew! (9.) Of Calling Aloud; ho ! what ho ! soho ! hol- 
lo ! hoy! ahoy! (10.) Of Exultation; ah' aha! huzza! 
hey! heydey ! hurrah! (11.) Of Laughter ; ha, ha, ha ! he, 
he, he! (12.) Of Salutation; welcome! hail! all-hail! 
(13.) Of Calling to Attention; ho! Io ! behold! look! see! 
hark! la! law! (14,) Of Calling to Silence; hush! hist! 
whist! y st ! aw! mum ! (15.) Of Surprise or Horror; Oh ! 
ha! hah! what! what though! (16.) Of Languor or Weari- 
ness; heigh-ho ! heigh-ho-hum ! (17.) Of Stopping; hold! 
soft! avast! whoh! (18.) Of Parting ; farewell ! adieu i 
good-bye! (19.) Of Knowing ox Detecting; oho! aha! ayv 
ay! (20.) Of Interrogation-, eh? ha? hey? (21.) The im- 
perative words of teamsters may also be reckoned as interjec- 
tions ; as, haw! gee! wo! &c. 



ETYMOLOGY SIMILARITY OF WORDS. 123 

(22.) Significant words uttered independently after the 
manner of interjections, ought, in general, perhaps, to be re- 
ferred to their original classes ; for all such expressions may- 
be supposed elliptical ; as," Order! gentlemen, Order!" i.e. 
"come to order;" or "keep order;" "silence!" i.e. "Pre- 
serve silence;" out! out! i. e. "get out;" or "clear out." 

In some instances, interjections are fox be taken as nouns; 
as, — 

" Charge, Chester Charge ! On ! Stanley, On ! 
Were the last words of 1^™!^!!." — Scott. 

" If you deny me, (fy) fie upon your law." 

[Gould Brown's Gram, of English Grams., pp. 428, 429.] 

• Though I have not followed the exact order in the above ex- 
tract, yet I have presented it in the manner which I think 
best adapted to the mind of the learner. 

Interjections, when properly used, are certainly very signi- 
ficant modes of expression ; they imply much in a little ; but 
their too frequent use implies leanness of mind, and want of 
language. They should, therefore, be sparingly used ; and 
when their use is necessary, it should be in good keeping with 
the emotions they are intended to indicate ; i. e. according to 
their proper import. 

WORDS SIMILAR IN ORTHOGRAPHY, BUT OFTEN 
DIFFERENT IN ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. — How shall I know the true construction of 
the words of this class ? 

A, — You can know them only as other parts of speech are 
known ; that is, by the sense ; study well the office of words ; 
to wit : 

Much is used 1st as an adverb; as, " You have your mo- 
ther much offended ;" 2d, as an adjective ; as, " I have taken 
much pains ;" 3d, as a noun; as, %i where much is given, much 
is required." 

Since is used 1st, as a preposition; as, "I have not seen 
him since that time ;" 2d, as a conjunction ; as, "I will go 
since you desire it;" 3d, as an adverb; as, "I saw him long 
since." 

But is used 1st, as a conjunction; as, "He is sick, but you 
are well;" 2nd, as an adverb; as, "we are but (only) of 
yesterday." 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

By is used 1st as a preposition ; as, "He went by town f* 
2d, as an adverb ; as, " each puff of fortune blows the 
tatters by, (aside)." 

After is used 1st, as a proposition; as "I left home after 
that time." 2d, as an adverbial conjunction; as, "I re- 
turned home after I had visited New Orleans." 

Before is used 1st, as a preposition; as, ' ' stand before me." 
In the compound form it unites with from; as, " stand from 
before me" 2d, as an adverbial conjunction; as, "I shall 
start before he arrives." 

Notwithstanding is used 1st, as a preposition; as, "He is 
respected, notioithstanding his poverty." 2d, as a conjunction ; 
as, "He is respected, notwithstanding he is poor." 

That is used 1st, as an adjective pronoun; as, "Give me 
that book" 2d, as a relative pronoun; as "The child that 
was sick, is now well." 3d, as a conjunction; as "1 expec- 
ted that he would go." 

As is used 1st, as an adverbial conjunction; as, " He acted as 
he was directed." 2d, as a conjunction; as, "I will do so, 
as (since) it is your request." 

jFbrisused 1st, as a preposition; as, " This is good for us." 2d 
as a conjunction ; as, " Love God, for (because) he loves you." 

The is used 1st, as an article ; as, " Give me the book." 2d, 
as an adverb ;•(•" The wiser he is, the better he is ;" " The more 
I examine the work, the better I like it." 

What is used 1st, as a relative pronoun ; as, " He got wJiai 
(that which) he wanted." 2d, as a limiting adjective; as, 
" "FFyfotfmanis that?" 3d, as an adverb; as, " What* (partly) 
by entreaty, and what* (partly) by threatening, I succeeded," 
4th, as an interjection; as " What! rob, and then vilify the 
innocent!" " What! is thy servant a dog." 

Which is used 1st, as a relative pronoun ; as, " This is the 
tree which bears the best fruit." 2d, as a limiting adjective ; 
as, il 'Which things are an allegory." Gal. chap. iv. 24. 

* What in this instance would seem more properly to be a compound 
relative pronoun than an interjection ; as, ("In consequence of) what 
(that which I did) by entreaty, and what (that which I did) by threat- 
ening, I succeeded ;""yet the adjuncts formed by the prepositions in, of, 
and by, in connection with the relative clauses, all combine to form two 
adverbial elements, each qualifying the verb succeeded, defining the 
means or manner by which success was obtained. To transpose it for 
parsing, begin thus ; / succeeded in consequence of wlwt (or of that 
which, &c.) 

f See G. Brown's Grammar of English Grammars, p. 464, Obs.Kfc 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 

Q. — Of what does Syntax treat ? 
A. — Syntax treats of the agreement and government of words, 
and their proper arrangement in a sentence. 

Q. — What is a sentence ? * 

A. — A sentence is an assemblage of words forming com- 
plete sense. 

Q. — How many kinds of sentences are there ? 
A . — Two ; the simple and the compound. 

Q. — What is a simple sentence? 
A. — A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject 
and one finite verb, 

Q. — What is a compound sentence? 

A. — A compound sentence is two or more simple sentences 
joined together by a conjunction, either expressed or under- 
stood. 

Q. — What is a phrase ? 

A. — A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
sometimes forming a part of a sentence, and sometimes form- 
ing a whole sentence. 

Q. — How many different kinds of phrases are 
there ? 

A. — Four ; namely, adverbial, participial, substantive and 
interjectional phrases. 

Q. — Why is one kind called adverbial? 

A. — Because the words composing it taken together per- 
form the office of an adverb. See examples below. 

125 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — Why is one called participial? 

A. — Because the leading word in it, is a participle, upon 
which the other words depend; the participle referring to 
some preceding noun or pronoun as its subject or actor. 

Q. — Why is one kind called a substantive 
phrase? 

A. — Because the entire phrase takes the construction of a 
noun, in the nominative or objective case. 

Q. — Why is one kind called Interjectional? 
A, — Because the entire phrase is used as one exclamation, 
or one interjection. 

Q. — How are phrases disposed of in parsing ? 

A. — They are to be analysed, if it can be done according 
to rule ; and if they cannot be so analyzed, they are to be dis- 
posed of as phrases, agreeably to the character they sustain, 
and their relation and influence explained. 

Q. — What is a finite verb? 

A. — Any verb that is not in the infinitive mood. 

Q. — Why is it called finit 6? 

A. — Because it is bound to agree with its nominative case. 
See Rule 1st, Syntax. See, also, the word finite, Webster's 
Lexicon. 

Q.— Why is the other called infinitive? 
A. — Because it is not bound to agree with a nominative. 
It has no nominative, and is therefore free from the rule. 

Q. — Will you give me a few examples illustra- 
tive of the different kinds of sentences, phrases 
and verbs? 

A.— Yes, with pleasure, hoping that you will examine 
them carefully. 

Examples. 

1. " Life is Short," is a simple sentence. 

2. " Life is Short, and Art is Long," Compound sentence. 

3. " All day long ;" "long ago ;" "hi vain" — Adverbial 
phrases. 



SYNTAX SENTENCES, PHRASES, AND VERBS. 127 

4. " Esteeming themselves wise " — Participial phrase. 

5. "To play is pleasant;" "Boys love to play;" " To 
will is present with me ; but to perform that which is good, I 
find not" — Substantive phrases. 

6. " Well done! "To be sure!" " Awful indeed !" In- 
terjectional phrases. 

7. " He loves me ;" "He writes well " — Finite verbs. 

8. " To love;" "To write;" " To spell"— Infinitive verbs. 

Q. — What parts of a sentence are the Subject 
and the Predicate? 

A . — The subject of a proposition is the thing of which some 
thing is affirmed. The predicate is the thing that is affirmed 
of its subject; as, "John runs;" here John is the subject, 
and runs is the predicate ; running is affirmed of John. 
The word affirm (in this construction,) must be understood to 
include interrogatives, commands, &c. You must draw the 
distinction between what is meant here, and what is meant in 
the distinction of the moods of verbs. The logical sense, as 
here, must not be confounded with the grammatical sense, in 
regard to the distinction of the moods ; for instance, when I 
say "/ walk" I assert or affirm that I do something ; but 
when I say " If I walk " I do not assert or affirm, positively, 
that / do walk . 

THE SUBJECT OF A PROPOSITION IS EITHER 

GRAMMATICAL OR LOGICAL, AND IT IS 

EITHER SIMPLE OR COMPOUND. 

Q. — What is a Proposition in a grammatical 
sense ? 

A. — It is a sentence in which any thing is affirmed, &c ; 
all complete sentences are in this sense regarded as proposi- 
tions. 

Q. — What is meant by a Grammatical and a Lo- 
gical subject. 

A. — The grammatical subject is either a noun or pronoun, 
or some word or phrase, which is the subject of, or nominative 
to the verb. The logical subject consists of the grammatical 
subject, with all its qualifying or modifying words as the full 
and complete subject. Thus, " The consciousness of a well- 
spent life, is pleasant;" here the noun consciousness is the 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

grammatical subject ; and the consciousness of a well-spent life 
is the logical subject. If the grammatical subject is not 
modified, it is then both the grammatical and logical subject ; 
as in the proposition, "John runs" John is both the gram- 
matical and logical subject. 

Q. — What is the difference between the simple 
subject and the compound subject. 

A. — A simple subject is a noun, or a pronoun, or something 
else standing for a noun, either alone, or variously modified, 
as one subject : as, "Life is short;" or, " The longest life of 
man is short." A compound subject consists of two or more 
simple subjects in the nominative to one verb ; as, " The moon 
and the stars shone ;" "Two and three are five ;" " This 
most excellent man, and that consummate villainy were born 
in London/' 



MODIFIED SUBJECT. 
Q. — What is meant by modification ? 

4. — -One word is said to modify or qualify another, when it 
serves to explain, describe, enlarge, restrict, or otherwise vary 
its meaning. The same of phrases and sentences. 

Q. — How may a grammatical subject be modi- 
fied? 

A. — In various ways ; 1st. By a noun in the same case, an- 
nexed for the sake of explanation or description; as, "John 
the Baptist came." 2d. By a noun or prono m in the posses- 
sive case; as, "Milton's writings ;" "/^/brother is here;" 
" A brother of yours is here." 3d. By an adjective, article, 
or participle', as, "Envious time flies;" " The flowers fade;" 
"A horse neighs;" "He, shouting, made the onset." 4th. 
By an adjunct; as, "The love of learning, is commenda- 
ble." 5th. By a relative pronoun, and the words connected 
with it, (called the relative clause;) as, "The boy who stu- 
dies, will improve." 6th. By & verb in the infinitive mood; 
as, "A desire to learn is praiseworthy." 7th. By an entire 
clause; as, "A belief that God is merciful, affords consola- 
tion," 



SYNTAX MODIFICATION. 129 

MODIFYING WORDS MAY, THEMSELVES, BE 
MODIFIED. 

Q. — How are modifying words modified ? 

^. — i s t. A noun modifying another, may be modified in 
any of the ways in which a grammatical subject is modified. 
See above. 

2d. An adjective, modifying a noun expressed orunderstood, 
may be modified, 1st. By an adjunct; as, " Be not weary in 
well doing." 2d. By an adverb ; as, " Truly virtuous men 
are often reproached.' ' 3d. By an infinitive ; as, "Be swift 
to hear," " slow to speak" 

3d. An adverb may be modified, 1st. By an adjunct ; as, 
" Agreeably to nature," and 2d. By another adverb; as, 
" Yours very sincerely " 

4th. A modified grammatical subject, regarded as one 
complex idea, may itself, be modified ; as, " All bad books 
are pernicious." " The first two verses were sung." In these, 
all modifies not books only, but the complex idea, bad books, 
and first, in Hke manner, modifies the complex idea, two 
verses. 

Q. — What is a complex idea? 

A. — An idea containing a plurality of parts ; as "A long, 
straight, iron rod." A story is a simple idea, a true story is 
a complex idea. 

THE PREDICATE IS EITHER GRAMMATICAL OR 
LOGICAL, SIMPLE OR COMPOUND. 

Q. — What is the difference between the gram- 
matical and the logical predicate ? 

A. — The grammatical predicate is the verb. The logical pre- 
dicate consists of the verb, or grammatical predicate, with all of 
its modifications ; as, " Scipio routed the forces of Hannibal ;" 
here the verb, "routed," is the grammatical predicate, and 
"routed the forces of Hannibal" is the logical predicate. 
If the grammatical predicate is not modified, it is the same as 
the logical; thus, "John runs;" the verb "runs" is both 
the grammatical and logical predicate. See Copula, Predi- 
cate, and Attribute. Index. 

Q. — What is a simple predicate ? 

A. — A simple predicate is one which contains a single finite 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

verb ; as, " Pleasure is brief" (See copula and attribute.) 
" They are scattered in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America," 
it includes the entire predicate, though it may contain several 
adjuncts. 

Q. — What is a compound predicate I 

A. — A compound predicate consists of two or more simple 
predicates belonging to the same subject, as, " He laughs 
and weeps" "John reads, writes, and cyphers, studies geogra- 
phy and English grammar." In the simple predicate one thing 
only is predicated or affirmed of a simple or compound subject. 
In the compound predicate, two things, or more, are predi- 
cated or affirmed of the subject, whether simple or compound. 
(Examine this well.) 

MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

Q. — How is the grammatical predicate modi- 
fied? 

A. — It may be modified or limited in different ways ; to 
wit : 

1st. By a noun or pronoun in the same case as the subject; 
as, " He was called John ;" "It is he;" "7 am the man" 

2d. By a noun or a pronoun in the objective case ; as "John 
struck Alfred;" " I saw them" 

3d. By an adjective referring to the subject; as, "Aristi- 
des was called just." 

4th. By an adjunct ; as, " William spoke to Thomas." 
5th. By an adverb ; as, " George learns rapidly." 
6th. By an infinitive ; as, " James wishes to learn." 
7th. By a dependant clause ; as, * ' James wishes that you 
should learn ;" abridged, " James wishes you to learn." 

SENTENCES ARE EITHER SIMPLE OR COMPOUND. 

Q. — -Why is one called simple ? 

A. — Because a sentence of this kind contains but one sub- 
ject, and one finite verb ; or a simple sentence contains a sin- 
gle proposition; as "Time is money;" %< Knowledge is 
power." 

Q. — Why is the other called compound? 

A.~ Because a sentence of this kind contains two or more 



SYNTAX— SENTENCES AND CLAUSES. 13 i 

single or simple propositions, and necessarily two or more sub- 
jects, and two or more finite verbs, expressed or understood; 
as, " If time is money, ivasting it is prodigality;" " Strive to 
become wise, because knowledge is power;'* " Phocion was 
poor, though he might have become rich.'' These are compound 
sentences each formed of two simple sentences, joined together 
by the conjunctions, if, because, and though. 



CLAUSES ARE EITHER INDEPENDENT OR 
DEPENDENT. 

Q. — What are clauses of sentences? 

A. — Simple sentences, as entire parts of a compound sen- 
tence, are called clauses, as shown in the examples above 
given. 

Q. — What are independent and dependent clauses ? 

A. — An independent clause is one that makes complete 
sense of itself. A dependent clause is one that makes com- 
plete sense only in connection with another clause ; as, 
" Phocion was poor, though he might have been rich." Here 
the former clause, " Phocion was poor" is independent, the 
latter, " he might have been rich" is the dependent clause ; for 
it depends upon the former for its sense or meaning, and is 
attached to it by the conjunction though. Sometimes the con- 
junction precedes the clauses it is intended to connect, as, "If 
time is money, wasting it is prodigality." Here is an inde- 
pendent and dependent clause joined together by the conjunc- 
tion if; all such sentences need transposing ; thus, "Wasting 
time is prodigality, if it is money." Changing, also, the noun 
time, and the pronoun it, in respect to place — putting the 
noun in the independent, and the pronoun in the dependent 
clause. The dependent clause is sometimes called the subor- 
dinate clause. 

Q. — Do all compound sentences necessarily 
contain an independent and a dependent clause ? 

A. — No; all the clauses of a sentence maybe independent. 
One of them must be independent ; the rest may be dependent ; 
as, " He who preserves me, whose I am, and to whom I owe my 
being, is eternal. " " He is eternal" is the independent clause; 
the others are all dependent, or subordinate clauses. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. — Are there particular kinds of conjunctions 
that may be relied upon as guides to this con- 
struction of clauses? 

A. — The best discriminating rule is the sense ; still there 
are some conjunctions that are reliable. Clauses of the same 
kind, that is, independent or dependent, are connected by such 
conjunctions as and, or, nor, but, yet. Clauses connected by 
relative pronouns, adverbial conjunctions, the conjunctions that, 
as, and than, if, though, unless, and the like, expressed or un- 
derstood, are dependent clauses ; as, 

By adverbial conjunctions ; " We shall go when the cars go." 
By relative pronouns; " That which cannot be cured must be 
endured.' ' 

By conjunctions ; " The miser lives poor that he may die 
rich." "He is as industrious as a bee," (is). " He is larger 
than I," (am). See Rule 20th, Syntax. 

Q. — What are leading clauses, leading subjects, 
and leading verbs? 

A. — That member of a compound sentence on which the 
other depends , is the leading clause ; its sulject the leading sub- 
ject; and its verb the leading verb. As in the examples above. 

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 
Q. — What is an abridged proposition!. 

A. — Abridge means to shorten ; so an abridged proposition 
is one in which the sense and meaning are expressed in feioer 
words, than if the sentence were not abridged ; as, ' * Having 
finished our lessons, we will play." The sentence, unabridged, 
reads thus ; "We will play, when we have finished our lessons. 93 
The nominative case absolute, is always found in abridged 
propositions; as, " The sun being up, we started on our jour- 
ney ;" that is, unabridged, "we started, &c, zv hen the sun 
was up." " The war being at an end, the troops were dis- 
banded." L e. "The troops were disbanded when the war 
ended, 93 or "when the war was ended." " Of his having been 
successful, we have full assurance." i. e. "We have full assu- 
rance of his success; 3 ' or "we have full assurance that 
he has been successful. 33 Sometimes, however, in abridged 
propositions of this nature, the participle is not fully ex- 
pressed ; as, "But, those attained, we tremble to survey," 



SYNTAX ABRIDGEMENT. 133 

&c; the participle is " being attained '." " The bow well bent, 
and smart the spring." We supply being before well, and 
being after smart, to complete the construction of the nomina- 
tive case absolute. 

Q. — Are the abridged propositions known by 
any other name ? 

A. — Yes; they are termed phrases, adjuncts or clauses; 
and they uniformly possess a modifying influence, or relation 
in regard to the sentences or words with which they are asso- 
ciated. 

Q. — Are there various ways of abridging sen- 
tences ? 

A. — Yes; a compound sentence or proposition may some- 
times be reduced to a simple one, by abridging its dependent 
clause, as in the above example ; or thus, " The sun being up, 
we started ;" the dependent clause is abridged by omitting t)iQ 
connecting word when, and by changing the verb of the predi- 
cate into a participle, or an infinitive; as, " I know that he is 
a scholar;" abridged, " I know him to be a scholar," "know- 
ing him to be a scholar." 

Q. — What is the influence of dependent sen- 
tences or propositions, abridged, or otherwise ? 

A. — All dependent sentences, clauses, or propositions how- 
ever modified they may be, abridged or otherwise, possess the 
qualifying influence of adjectives, or of adverbs ; as do the or- 
dinary adjuncts formed by prepositions. See preposition. 

Examples. 

1 . " When the boys have finished their lessons, we will play." 

2. Abridged: " The boys having finished their lessons, we 
will play." 

3. Abridged : " The boys' lesson being finished, we will 
play." 

1. ''When our work is finished, we will play." 

2. Abridged: "Our work having been finished, we will 
play." 

3. Abridged : "Our work being finished, we will play." 

1 . " That he is a judge, is of no consequence." 

2. Abridged : " His being a judge, is of no consequence." 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. "I was not aware that he was a judge." 

2. Abridged : " I was not aware of his being a judge." 

1. " I know that he is a scholar." 

2. Abridged: "I know him to be a scholar." 

See Bullions' Gram. pp. 134, 135. 
The difference between these two modes of expression is 
this ; in the full or compound form of the sentence, the idea 
contained in the dependent clause is " affirmed;" whilst in the 
abridged form it is " assumed." In either case, the dependent 
or subordinate clause, abridged or otherwise, modifies, in some 
sense or other, the principle or independent clause ; and the 
modifying influence is either that of an adjective, or of an 
adverb. A dependent clause may often be abridged by sub- 
stituting an equivalent qualifying word, or an adjunct; as, 
" The man who is honest will be respected." Here the adjec- 
tive, honesty if placed before the noun to which it belongs, 
would perform the office of the relative clause "who is 
honest ;" as " the honest man will be respected ;" and in this 
form it gives us a simple sentence instead of a compound one. 
Again, " When the sun set, we started ;" abridged, " at sunset 
we started." Here the adjunct " at sunset " has the force of 
an adverb of time, and qualifies the verb started in the same 
sense as the dependent clause does. Though you may not at 
all times be enabled to see, at a glance, the influence of de- 
pendent clauses, abridged propositions, or adjuncts, yet if 
you will strive to do so, it will not be long until you will be- 
come as familiar with them, as with the ten parts of speech* 

THE PREDICATE, THE COPULA, AND THE 
ATTRIBUTE EXPLAINED. 

The grammatical predicate, properly considered, consists of 
two parts — the Attribute affirmed of the subject, and the Copula, 
by which the affirmation is made ; or the verb connecting the 
attribute with the subject. Thus ; in the sentence, " God is love," 
Ood is the subject; " is love," is the predicate; in which love 
is the attribute ; and is, the copula. 

The attribute and the copula are often expressed in one 
word, which must always be &verb; as, "The fire burns," an- 
alyzed thus : " The fire is burning ;" in which is is the copula, 
and burning is the attribute. The attribute (called by some the 
predicate, ) may be a noun or a pronoun, or an adjective, some- 
times a, preposition with its regimine, an adverb, or a participle ; 



SYNTAX THE PREDICATE, COPULA, AND ATTRIBUTE. 135 

or it may be an infinitive verb, or a clause of a sentence, connec- 
ted to the subject by the copula ; as, 

1 . James is a scholar. 

2. James is he. 

3. James is diligent. 

4. James is in health. 

5. John is not so. 

6. James is learned, (or James is learning.) 

7. To enjoy is to obey. 

8. The day is to be celebrated. 

9. The order is that we must go. * 

10. John walks, (i. e. is walking.) 

11. The fire burns, (i. e. is burning.) 

When a verb does not complete the predicate, but is used 
as a copula only, it is called a copulative verb; so in the 
above list, from 1 to 9 inclusive, the verbs do not complete the 
predicate, and are therefore called copulative verbs; or each 
verb (is) is called the copula, whilst that part coming after it 
is called the attribute because it is the thing attributed to the 
subject, or affirmed of it. It is by some also called the predi- 
cate, because it is the thing predicated of the subject; which 
latter notion, I am inclined to think, is not correct, for the pre- 
dicate (grammatical,) properly consists of two parts, the copula 
and the attribute; neither of which, alone, can be considered 
a complete predicate. When a verb includes both the attri- 
bute and the copula, it is called an attributive verb. Now, by 
examining the two items, 10 and 11, in the list above, you 
will surely see that the verbs burns and walks do each include 
both the copula and the attribute, the thing attributed; on the 
account of which they are called attributive verbs ; and each of 
these verbs constitutes a complete grammatical predicate ; the 
participles denoting actions as things attributed to, or affirmed 
of the subjects fire and John: and so is the case with all simi- 
lar verbs. See Duncan's Logic, Chapter 2 : Sees. 2 and 3 ; 
also Hedge's Logic, p. 45. The copula is always some form of 
the verb " To Be," which, in some form, is contained or con- 
templated in every other verb in the language. 

It may be objected by some, that the system of logical an- 
alysis, as set forth in these pages, does not come properly be- 
fore the mind of the grammar student. If so, I can but say 
in reply, that the objector has surely some things yet to learn 
in regard to the science of language ; for no one destitute of 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the primary principles of logic, can reasonably expect, without 
a knowledge of it, to become a good grammarian. As is the 
case with the alphabet, so, to some extent, is it with the gram- 
mar. We learn the alphabet in order to learn to read^and 
by reading only can* we learn to analyze the alphabet in order 
to know the proper uses of the characters of the alphabet ; so, 
also, in regard to grammar, we learn it in order to learn lo- 
gic, and a knowledge of logic only can teach us the true pur- 
port of grammar. 

EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 

1. Expletives are those words used merely to introduce the 
sentence, in which the subject or nominative comes after the 
verb ; as, u There is a man at the door;" "It is a man that I 
see." "JVbiv then;" these latter words, used separately or toge- 
ther, do not always refer to time, though properly adverbs of 
time ; but merely to indicate a certain circumstance, or state of 
things ; as, " If you will go, then go," (in that case go) ; or " If 
you will not go, then (in that case, or state of things,) say so." 
" Now then, take that and go." Or merely to indicate the 
transition from one sentence to another; as, " Not this man, 
but Barabbas ; Now, Barabbas was a robber." 

2. Euphony pertains to figures of Etymology and Syntax, 
(which see). It is used on account of agreeableness of sound, 
and to render words and phrases emphatic. It adds nothing 
to the sense, but, like expletives, it enables us to vary the ex- 
pression, and to soften its abruptness; as, " He labored with 
his own hands ;" " I ?ny self did it ;" " To think of others, 
and not only of himself;" "My banks they are furnished with 
bees;" " He that planted the ear, can he not hear?" or, 
transposed, " Can he not hear who planted the ear ?" 

"Down! Down! the tempest plunges on the sea*$ 
For life ! For life ! their flight, they fly." 

3. Antecedent and subsequent apply to sentences as well as 
to words ; but one sentence does not represent or stand for 
another, as with words ; the sentence or phrase qualifying an- 
other, is called the subsequent ; and the one qualified by it is 
called the antecedent; "as, the master who taught us. is here." 

4. Transitive. A sentence is transitive when it contains 
three things ; to wit : a nominative or subject, a transitive 
verb, and an object ; and it is called intransitive when it con- 
tains only the subject and an intransitive verb. 



SYNTAX GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 137 

5. To Parse, means to analyze or resolve a sentence into 
the elements or parts of which it is composed ; showing the 
relation and dependence throughout, with the reasons, and the 
application of the rules, &c. To parse a word, is to tell the 
part of speech, what kind, as well as all of its properties, or 
accidents, and its qualifying influence, if any, with the reasons, 
rules, <fec. 



DIRECTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 
OR LOGICAL PARSING. 

1. State whether the sentence is simple or compound. 

2. If it be a simple sentence, name the Logical Subject and 
the Logical Predicate. 

3. Name the Grammatical Subject, and show whether it is 
simple or compound. 

4. Show by what words or phrases, if any, it is modified in 
the Logical Subject. 

5. Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying 
word is modified in the Subject. 

6. Name the Grammatical Predicate, and show whether it is 
simple or compound. 

7. Show by what words or phrases, if any, it is modified in 
the Logical Predicate. 

8. Show by what modifying word, or phrase, if any, each 
modifying word is modified in the Predicate. 

9. If it be a compound sentence, mention the members or 
clauses. 

10. State whether they are independent, or dependent. 

1 1 . Show how the members are connected. 

12. Analyze each member as a simple sentence, by showing 
its Subject, Predicate, fyc. as above required. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

1. Every sentence is either simple or compound. 

2. Every compound sentence contains two or more simple 
sentences either expressed or understood. 

3. In every simple sentence there is at least one finite verb 
and its subject, either expressed or understood. 

4. Every noun and pronoun must be in either the nomi- 
native, possessive or objective case. 

6* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Every phrase or sentence taking the construction of a 
noun, must be either in the nominative, or the objective case. 

6. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, 
refers to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood. 

7. Every nominative or subject, except the nominative case 
independent and the nominative case absolute, and compound 
subjects, has its own verb expressed or understood. See 2d 
and 3d Rules of Syntax. 

8. Every finite verb, that is, every verb not in the infinitive 
mood, agrees with its own nominative or subject, expressed or 
understood. 

9. Every possessive case is governed by some noun or 
phrase denoting the thing possessed ; expressed or understood. 

10. Every objective case is governed by an active transitive 
verb, a participle derived from an active transitive verb, or a 
preposition, expressed or understood. 

11. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed by, or de- 
pends upon a verb, adjective, noun or pronoun, denoting its 
subject or agent, expressed or understood. 

12. Every noun or pronoun in the nominative case indepen- 
dent must be the subject of direct address. 

13. Every nominative case absolute, depends upon a parti- 
ciple, expressed or understood. 

14. The verb To Be, through all its variations, is a conductor 
to the cases of nouns and pronouns ; and it admits the same 
case after it, as before it. 

15. Every preposition, with its regimen, forms an adjunct, 
which qualifies its antecedent term of relation, either in the 
sense of an adjective or in the sense of an adverb. 

16. Exceptions to these general principles, are considered 
anomalous, in as much as they transcend the rules of Syntax ; 
and there being few, very few exceptions, proves the rules 
themselves, to be in close keeping with what the genius of the 
language requires, 

MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 

As the strict and complete analysis of sentences is that 
which grammar proposes to teach, I have thought proper to 
give in this place, such an illustration as seems in nearest 
keeping with what the natural construction of the language 
requires ; in doing this, I have sought for nothing new or 
novel ; but merely for that system which seems to present 



SYNTAX MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 139 

itself most naturally to the mind of the learner, as being 
reasonable and right. Of the many plans that I have exa- 
mined on this subject, I think the one offered by the Rev. Peter 
Bullions the most commendable ; I have therefore adopted it 
without material alteration, knowing that a reasonable study of 
the same will yield much mental improvement to the pupil. 

1. "God is good." 

This is a simple sentence, because it contains a subject and 
a predicate. God is the logical subject, because it is that of 
which the quality is affirmed. Is good, is the logical predicate 
because it affirms a quality of its subject. Is is the verb or 
copula, and good is the attribute. 

Or more briefly thus : 

The logical subject is God. 

The logical predicate is is good, in which is is the verb or 
copula, and good the attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the 
logical ; (neither being qualified by any other word). 

2. "The sun and moon stood still." 

This is a simple sentence, with a compound subject. 

The logical subject is the sun and the moon. 

The logical predicate is stood still. 

The grammatical subject is sun and moon, compound, and 
connected by and, both modified by the. 

The grammatical predicate is stood, modified by still, an ad- 
verb expressing manner. 

3. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
This is a simple sentence. 

The logical subject is the fear of the Lord. 

The logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom. 

The grammatical subject is fear. It is limited by the ad- 
junct of the Lord, and shown to be limited by the article the. 

The grammatical predicate is is beginning, in which is is 
the verb or copula, and beginning the attribute. It is limited 
by the adjunct of wisdom, and shown to be limited by the. 

4. " A good man does what (that which) is right, from 
principle." 

This is a compound sentence, containing one leading, and 
one dependent clause, connected by which. 

The independent clause is a good man does that from prin- 
ciple. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The dependent clause is uihich is right, and is restrictive of 
that in the leading clause, the antecedent to which, the con- 
necting: word. 

In the first or leading clause — 

The logical subject is a good man. 

The logical predicate is does that from principle. 

The grammatical subject is man, limited by good, and 
shown to be limited by a. 

The grammatical predicate is does, modified by its object, 
that, and the adjunct from principle ; that is modified by the 
relative clause which is right. 

In the second, or dependent clause : — - 

The logical subject is which. It also connects its clause 
with the antecedent that, and restricts it. 

The logical predicate is is right, in which is is the verb or 
copula, and right is the attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the 
logical. 

5. " There is nothing which all mankind venerate and ad- 
mire so much as simple truth." 

This is a compound sentence consisting of one independent 
clause, and two dependent clauses. 

The independent clause is There is nothing. 

The first dependent clause is which all mankind venerate, 
and admire so much, connected to the preceding by which. 

The second dependent clause connected by as to the pre- 
ceding, as its leading member is [they venerate arid admire) 
simple truth. 

In the frst, or independent proposition;-^ 

The logical subject is nothing (i. e. not anything). 

The logical predicate is is (existent* or existing). 

The grammatical predicate and subject, are the same as the 
logical. 

There is an introductory expletive, used in such sentences 
when the subject follows the verb. 

In the second proposition, dependent on the first : — 

The logical subject is all mankind. 

*The copula, itself, cannot be both the copula and the attribute, which 
two together constitute the grammatical predicate ; existent is the true 
attribute and part of the predicate. See Logick, by Hedge, p. 45. '• Troy 
was, " &c. by Duncan, Chap. 2, section 2 and 3. Bullions' Gram. p. 
125, Art. 597 and p. 129, Articles, 620. 621, 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 141 

The logical predicate is venerate and admire so much. 

The grammatical subject is mankind, modified by all. 

Thf grammatical predicate is venerate and admire, com- 
pound, connected by and, and modified by their object which, 
which also connects its clause with its antecedent thing, for 
the purpose of restricting it, and the predicate is also modified 
by the adverbial phrase so much. 

In the third proposition, connected with the second by as: — 

The logical subject is they, understood (for all mankind.) 

The logical predicate is venerate and admire simple truth, 
(also understood agreeably to Rule 20th, Syntax). 

The grammatical subject is they, or the same as in the pre- 
ceding clause. (Supply the elipsis as required by the 20th 
and 21st Rules.) 

The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire, under- 
stood, modified by their object truth, and this is qualified by 
the adjective simple. 

6. " Conversation makes a man wax wiser than himself, and 
that more by an hour's discourse than by a day's meditation. " 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two independent 
clauses, connected by and, each of which has its own depen- 
dent clause. 

The first independent clause is conversation makes a man 
(to) wax wiser. Its independent clause himself (is), connec- 
ted by than. 

The second independent clause is (it does) (hat more by an 
hour's discourse. Its dependent clause is (it does) by a day's 
meditation, connected by than. 

(The words supplied are included in parentheses.) 

In the first independent clause : — 

The logical subject is conversation. 

The logical predicate is makes a man (to) wax wiser. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is makes, modified by its object, 
man, which is also the subject of the verb to wax. It is 
shown to be used indefinitely by a, and is qualified by the 
predicative* adjective wiser. 

*An adjective coming after the verb or copula is of course predicated 
of the subject. An adjective going before the noun -which it ^nalifies is 
said to be assumed. f J he difference in regard ro the position of the ad- 
jective is very essential. See Note 8th to 8th Rule of Syntax. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by 
than : — 

The logical subject is himself, (in the nominative to is un- 
derstood) and in apposition with he understood. 

The logical predicate is is (understood.) 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the 
logical. 

In the second independent proposition connected to the first 
by and : — 

The logical subject is ^understood (for conversation.) 

The logical predicate is (it does) that more by an hour's dis- 
course. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is does (understood). It is 
modified by its object that, representing the phrase makes a 
man wax wiser ; also by the adverb more, and the adjunct by an 
hour's discourse ; and discourse is limited by hour's which is 
shown to* be indefinite by the article an. 

In the clause dependent on the preceding, connected by than : 

The logical subject iszV (conversation) understood. 

The logical predicate is (does) by a day's meditation. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is does, (understood as before,) 
modified by the adjunct by meditation — meditation is limited 
by days, and that is shown to be indefinite by the article a. 

7. "The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examined, 
affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and 
adore the Omnipotent hand by which it was created." 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of an independent 
clause, and two dependent clauses. 

The independent clause is The minutest plant or animal af- 
fords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore 
the Omnipotent hand. 

The first dependent clause is (it is) attentively examined, 
connected as a condition by if, to the leading verbs affords 
and obliges. 

The second dependent clause is by which it was created^ 
connected, also, by which to hand, in order to describe it. 

In the independent clause : — 

The logical subject is the minutest plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is affords a thousand wonders, and 
obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent hand. 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 143 

The grammatical subject is plant and animal, compound ; 
its parts are connected by or as alternates, and both modified 
by minutest. (Examine well the 3d Rule of Syntax). 

The grammatical predicate is affords and obliges, compound; 
its parts are connected by and. Affords is modified by its ob- 
ject, wonders, which is limited by a thousand. Obliges is 
modified by its object us, and the infinitives to admire and to 
adore, of which us is also the subject, and these infinitives are 
modified by their object hand, which is qualified and describ- 
ed by Omnipotent, and the relative clause by which it was 
created. The verbs affords and obliges are modified also, by 
the conditional clause if (it is) attentively examined. 

In the first dependent clause — 

The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is is attentively examined. 

The grammatical subject is it, (referring to plant or animal). 

The grammatical predicate is is examined. It is modified 
as to the manner, by the adverb attentively. 

In the second dependent clause — 

The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is was created by which. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is was created. It is modified by 
the adjunct by which, referring to hand, its antecedent. 

The preceding process of analysis will not only furnish the 
pupil with profitable mental exercise, but, if properly carried 
out, it will, in a few days at farthest, bestow upon him a more 
extensive and correct knowledge of the construction and analy- 
sis of sentences, than would be obtained, perhaps, in weeks 
or even months of ordinary parsing. It is presumed, however, 
that the pupil must possess, to some extent, a correct know- 
ledge of syntactical parsing, before he can properly appreciate 
the analysis of sentences. So soon as he obtains a tolerable 
degree of aptness in regard to the parts of speech, and their 
modifications, and modifying influence upon other words, 
which he can obtain only from syntactical parsing, he should 
exercise his judgment, occasionally, in discriminating the diffe- 
rent parts of sentences, and their modifying influence, simple 
and compound. 

As a further exercise in the construction of language, a few 
sentences are subjoined. 



144 english grammar. 

Exercises. 
(To be analyzed in the same way as the preceding.) 

Knowledge is power. Truth is the basis of honor. It is 
the beginning of virtue ; it liveth and conquereth for ever. 
Time is a gift bestowed on us by the bounty of Heaven. The 
heart and the tongue are the best and the worst parts of man. 
Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment. Praise is 
more acceptable to the heart than profitable to the mind. He 
who is first to condemn, will often be the last to forgive. 
True religion gives order and beauty to the world, and after 
life, a better existence. A little philosophy carries us 
away from truth, while a greater brings us back to it again. 
What we know is nothing, but what we are ignorant of is im- 
mense. Cold water is a warm friend, and strong water is a 
powerful enemy to mankind. Many men have been obscure 
in their origin and birth, but great and glorious in life and 
death. To hear patiently and to answer precisely, are the 
great perfections of conversation. Books which save the 
trouble of thinking, and inventions which save the labor of 
working, are in universal demand. Solon compared the peo- 
ple to the sea, and orators and counsellors to the winds ; for 
he said, that the sea would be calm and quiet, if the winds did 
not trouble it. Some cultivate philosophy in theory, who are 
imperfect philosophers in practice ; as others advocate religion, 
who are nevertheless indifferently religious. 

In addition to the foregoing, the following specimens will be 
advantageous to the pupil in illustrating the order and con- 
struction of sentences ; not designed, however, to supercede 
the preceding, but as aids to the construction as therein shown. 
While some might, with facility, take hold of the idea as illus- 
trated in the foregoing, others might need a little help ; for the 
latter, therefore; the following are intended : 

! liveth ) 

and > forever, 

conquereth ) 

This is a simple sentence, with a simple subject and a com- 
pound predicate ; for ever is an adverbial phrase qualifying the 
verbs liveth and conquereth. 

{ on us 
Time is a gift which is bestowed (by the bounty of heaven. 



SYNTAX EXERCISES. 145 — 

This is a compound sentence, containing one independent, 
and one dependent clause, connected by which ; which is 
equivalent to and it; on us is an adjunct oi is bestow td ; by the 
bounty of Heaven is a compound adjunct also of the verb is be- 
stowed. The relative clause may be abridged thus: Time is a 
gift b stowed on us, by the bounty of Heaven. 

"The heart) ( the best ) 

and > are < and V parts of man." 

the tougue) ( the worst ) 

This is a simple sentence, with a compound subject. (See 
Rule 2 of Syntax). The two adjectives, best and word, both 
modify the same noun parts ; of man, is the adjuncts of parts, 
and modifies it like an adjective. 

(who is the first to censure, 
"He | will often be the last to forgive." 

This is a compound sentence, with one independent and one 
dependent clause, connected by who, which introduces a rela- 
tive clause descriptive of the person represented by the pro- 
noun he, and as an adjective tells us of at least one attribute 
or trait in the character of a person last to forgive ; last is an 
adjective taken as a noun, or belonging to person understood, 
upon which the infinitive to forgive depends for its subject. 
The verbs to forgive and to condemn, are both transitive, if you 
supply proper objects after them. 

" A little philosophy carries us away from truth ; while a 
greater brings us back to it again.' ' 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one independent 
and one dependent clause, connected by while. In the inde- 
pendent clause away, an adverb modifies carries, and from 
truth is the adjunct of carries, and modifies it in the sense of 
an adverb. In the dependent clause, back is an adverb, and 
modifies brings; to it, is the adjunct of brings, and modifies 
it as an adverb ; agaiiiis also an adverb, and modifies brings. 
But, in the place of whilst, would render both clauses inde- 
pendent. 
" To hear patiently ) 

and > are the great perfections of language." 

to answer precisely,) 

This is a simple sentence with a compound subject ; the two 
infinitive clauses, to hear patiently, and to answer precisely, are 
substantive phrases, taking the construction of nouns, put in 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the nominative to one verb, (by Note 1st, under Rule 1st,) the 
subject is therefore compound; of language is the adjunct of 
perfections , and modifies it in the sense of an adjective. (Re- 
member, that adjuncts formed by prepositions always modify 
the antecedent term of relation, in the sense of either an ad- 
jective of of an adverb ; look carefully for the qualifying in- 
fluence of the adjunct. Considering whether it be that of an 
adjective or that of an adverb-, and this will conduct you to 
the antecedent term; adjectives refer only to nouns, or pro- 
nouns, or something taking the construction of a noun ; ad- 
verbs refer only to verbs, participles, adjectives, and other ad- 
verbs.) 

" Books — which save the trouble of thinking,) . • -, 

i f are m universal 

inventions — which save the labor of working) 

This is a compound sentence with one independent and two 
dependent clauses; the subject is compound; the predicate 
simple. The first dependent clause, introduced by the rela- 
tive which, describes books, in the sense of an adjective ; in 
which of thinking is the adjunct of trouble, and tells what kind 
of trouble is meant, as an adjective would do. The second de- 
pendent clause is precisely similar to the first. In universal 
demand is the adjunct of are, (adverb of place), and is also 
the attribute affirmed of books and inventions ; are is the copula. 
The grammatical subject is books and inventions. The logical 
subject is tlie grammatical, with the modifying clauses, or all 
that precedes the verb are. The grammatical predicate is are 
in demand; the logical predicate is are in universal demand. 
In universal demand is equivalent to universally demanded. 

r the people 
to the sea, 

?nd >for, he said 

orators and counsellors 
to the winds ; 
(calm ) 

that the sea would be < and > if the winds did not trouble it. 
(quiet,) 

This is a compound sentence containing five simple sen- 
tences, In the first division we have two independent sen- 
tences connected hj and, (with "he compared understood). In 
the second division we have one independent sentence contain- 
ing two dependent sentences as the object of what he said. In 



"Solon compared, 



SYNTAX EXERCISES. 147 

the first division, to the sea is the adjunct of the verb compared, 
expressed; and totheivinch, the adjunct of compared understood. 
In the second division, the verb said regards all that follows it 
as its object ; in which there are two simple sentences, intro- 
duced by the conjunction that. If these two be considered 
apart from the preceding, and as Solon himself would have 
written them, then, the first, the sea icould be calm and quiet, 
is an independent, and the second a dependent sentence, the 
two, connected by if. In the first of these calm and quiet are 
adjectives predicated of, or attributed to the sea ; would be calm 
and quiet, is the predicate, in which be is the copula, and calm 
and quiet is one compound attribute. See Bullions' Gram. p. 
133 par. 646, &c. 

" Some — who are imperfect philosophers, in practice, — culti- 
vate philosophy, in theory, as others — who are nevertheless 
indifferently religious— advocate religion." 

This is a compound sentence containing one leading or in- 
dependent clause, and three subordinate or dependent clauses, 
each connected to the antecedent clause by the words who, as 
and who. In the first division, who introduces a relative (or 
dependent) clause descriptive of the persons (some persons un- 
derstood) who cultivate philosophy in theory ; in which, in prac- 
tice^ is the adjunct of are, and modifies it in the sense of an 
adverb of place; in the antecedent, or leading clause, in 
theory* is the adjunct of the verb cultivate, and modifies it also 
in the sense of an adverb of place. The second who also in- 
troduces a relative (or dependent) clause, descriptive of others 
who advocate religion. The relative clauses have the force 
of adjectives. As connects a clause as an antithesis, or in 
contrast or comparison with the preceding, and is consequently 
a dependent or subordinate clause. 

*It may be objected, that the adjuncts in practice and in theory have 
not the influence of adverbs, as assigned above. If so, I ask the ques- 
tion, wherein are these philosophers imperfect? The answer is "in 
practice;" or their imperfection lies in practice. In which we see an ad- 
verb of place used in the interrogatory ; and we know, or should know, 
that nothing but an adverb of place or its equivalent will answer the 
question; for the place is enquired for, and the answer is m practice ; 
therefore in practice is an adverbial adjunct or phrase, alluding to place, 
or locality, and is properly disposed of. The same also may be said of 
in theory ; and all such adjuncts and phrases. See Murray's Gram. Oc. 
p. 116. G. Brown, p. 404, Bullions' pp. 106, and 258/ K Butler, p. 
121, S. W. Clark, p. 89, W. H. Wells, p. 113, Kirkham, p. 67, Green's 
Analysis, pp. 125, and 255. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" (What) that — which we know — is nothing ; (but) (what) 
thai — which we are ignorant of — is immense." 

This is a compound sentence, containing two leading and 
two subordinate clauses, connected by but, understood. The 
relative which, in the first division, introduces a clause qualify- 
ing or restricting that (or thing understood), the antecedent 
part of the compound relative pronoun what; and is in the 
objective case governed by know, by Rule 6, 2d clause. Which, 
in the second division, is also a relative pronoun, introducing a 
clause similar to the first relative clause, and is in the objective 
case governed by of, by Rule 6, 2d clause. Of which is the 
adjunct of the adjective ignorant. (It completes the predicate 
as an adverbial element ; whatever modifies an adjective must 
be an adverb, as to the elementary principle). 

In addition to the foregoing, the following will also be found 
a profitable exercise ; i. e. of tracing the connection of the 
first word in a sentence to the last, or of retracing the connec- 
tion of the last word in a sentence to the first, showing all the 
connections, references, and dependencies ; giving the necessary 
rules and explanations ; thus, in reference to the example 
above. 

What is a compound relative pronoun, including both the 
antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which; taken 
in the singular, because it means amount, quantity or sum; 
That, the antecedent part of the word what, is taken as a noun 
and is nominative to the verb is ; which, the relative part of 
the word what, is a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antece- 
dent that by rule 5th, and is in the objective case governed by 
the verb know, by rule I lth, and shown to be so by rule 6, 2d 
clause. We is a personal pronoun — declined, thus : — nomina- 
tive we, possessive ours, objective us; in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the verb know. Know is an attributive 
verb, it contains both the attribute and copula, are knowing ; 
are the copula, and knowing the attribute; the two constituting 
the grammatical predicate ; transitive verb, it passes from its 
nominative we, to its objective which; indicative mood and 
present tense, and agrees with its subject we, by rule 1st; 
which we know, is an adjective phrase modifying that, the an- 
tecedent of the word what, as a phrase or a word of descrip- 
tion ; is is a verb, irregular, and neuter, indicative mood, pre- 
sent tense, 3d person, singular number, agreeing with its subject 
that, the antecedent part of the word what, by rule 1st. Nothing 
is a noun, common, of the neuter gender, 3d person, sin- 



SYNTAX EXERCISES . 149 

gular number, in the predicate nominative after is, by 4th 
note under rule I lth; is nothing is the grammatical predicate; 
in which is is the copula, and nothing is the attribute. That, 
the antecedent of the word what, is the grammatical subject, 
and that which we, know the logical subject ; the grammatical 
predicate, being not modified, is the same as the logical. The 
two leading or independent clauses are connected by the con- 
junction but, understood. The second division is similar to the 
first, except that of which is the adjunct of the adjective igno- 
rant, and modifies it, and that immense is a predicate adjective, 
whereas thing in the former, is a predicate noun. Or thus : 

"The belief that there is a plurality of Gods, is inconsistent 
with reason." 

With reason is the adjunct of inconsistent ; is inconsistent is 
the grammatical predicate ; is the copula, referring the attri- 
bute inconsistent to the subject belief, which is modified by 
the adjective phrase there is a plurality of Gods, and shown 
to be so modified by the definite article the, meaning some 
particular belief, which is inconsistent with reason. That is a 
copulative conjunction, connecting the subordinate with the 
independent clause ; there is an expletive, or word of euphony; 
it serves merely to introduce a sentence, and to give force to 
the expression. Sentences thus introduced, need their parts 
transposed; thus, a plurality of Gods is {existent) ; existent 
is understood to complete the predicate, as existence merely is 
affirmed of the subject, plurality ; in which a plurality of 
Gods is the logical subject, and is existent the logical and 
grammatical predicate ; of Gods is the adjunct of the noun 
plurality, and modifies it in the sense of an adjective, and it is 
shown to be so modified by the article a. 



THE ORDER AND DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING, 
BOTH ETYMOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL. 

As the business of parsing embraces the full construction of 
words, in regard to both Etymology and Syntax, it seems to 
me most conducive to the development of a sentence, and the 
consequent improvement of the learner, to unite them in this 
operation. The Etymology of a word must surely be under- 
stood before the Syntactical construction can be given ; but 
the Etymology so often depends upon the Syntactical con- 
struction, that it seems almost impossible to understand the 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

one without a previous knowledge of the other. Indeed, from 
my own experience in teaching, I am fully persuaded that the 
plan here suggested is in every way preferable. Those who 
think differently, having, perhaps, a different method of expla- 
nation, can pursue the course best adapted to their views ; and 
so, also, in regard to other suggestions in the body of the work. 
By keeping steadily before the mind of the pupil the estab- 
lished or fixed principles of the analysis of the language, he 
can not fail in acquiring, very soon, a correct and pleasing 
knowledge of English Grammar. 

Example. 
"A good man loves the Lord's day." 

1. Examine each word in the sentence, and tell what part 
of speech it is ; this must be known by noticing particularly the 
office or use of each word. 

2. 1st. Find the noun, (man,) or subject, about which 
something is said or affirmed. 2d. Find the verb (loves,) that 
affirms or says something about the noun, or subject. 3d. 
Then consider these two as relating to each other, and also as 
affecting something else, (as day,) as an object acted upon by 
the verb. 4th. Then read the three words, as found, in con- 
nection ; thus, "man loves day," (if the verb be intransitive, 
you will find and read but two.) 

3. 1st. Find out all the qualifying words, considering 
them in regard to their influence on the words they qualify ; 
and 2d. Proceed to parse each word separately, commencing 
with the first word in the sentence, telling what part of speech 
it is, and defining it; telling, also, its modifications, and the 
reasons for them ; and then finally dispose of the word as to 
its Syntax, and apply the appropriate rule, by quoting it, and 
also tell its number. In the process observe the following 

Order. 

(What part of speech ?) 
1. — 1. A noun, and why? 

2. Common or proper, and why ? 

3. Gender, and why ? 

4. Person, and why ? 

5. Number, and why ? 

6. Case, and why? 



SYNTAX ORDER OF PARSING. 151 

1 . If the noun or pronoun be in the naminative case to a 
verb, say "it is in the nominative case to the verb." (here 
name the verb,) "agreeably to 2d clause of rule 1st." (And 
here repeat the rule.) 

2. If it be in the possessive case, say "it is in the possessive 
case, and governed by the noun/' (here name the governing 
noun,) "agreeably to rule 10th. " (And here repeat the rule.) 

3. If it be in the objective case, say "it is in the objective 
case, and governed by," (here name the governing word as to 
its class,) "agreeably to rule," (11th, 14th, or 17th, as is re- 
quired, and repeat the rule.) 

4. If it be in the nominative case independent, say "it is in 
the nominative case independent, because it is used in direct 
address, agreeably to the 6th note under rule 1st," (and here 
repeat the note.) 

5. If it be in the nominative case absolute, say "it is in the 
nominative case absolute agreeably to the 5th note under rule 
1st," (and here repeat the note.) 

6. If it be nominative after the neuter verb be, say "it is 
nominative after the neuter verb be, agreeably to the 4th note 
under Rule 11th," (and here repeat the note.) 

7. If it be in apposition with some other noun or pronoun, 
say "it is in apposition with," (here name the other noun or 
pronoun,) "because it means the same thing." See 4th note 
under Rule 11th. 

2. — 1. An Article, and why? 

2. Definite or Indefinite, and why? 

3. What noun does it limit? (agreeably to 1st, or 2d 
clause of rule 9th.) 

3. — 1. An Adjective, and why ? 

2. What degree of comparison, and why ? 

3. To what does it belong, or refer ? (agreeably to Rule 
8th.) 

4. — 1. A Pronoun, and why? 

2. What kind, and why? 

3. What does it represent, or relate to, and agree with ? 
(agreeably to Rule 5th.) 

4. What gender, and why? 

5. Person, and why ? 

6. Number, and why ? 

7. Case, (decline it,) — (agreeably to Rules 10th, 11th, 
14th, 17th, 20th, or 1st, 5th, or 6th note under Rule 1st, or 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4th note, Rule 11th. This is the same as the noun in regard 
to case.) 

5. — 1. A Verb, and why ? 

2. Active, Passive, or Neuter, and why? (If it be an 
active verb, tell whether it be transitive or intransitive ; if tran- 
sitive, tell its nominative and its object. If it be a transitive 
verb in the Infinitive Mood, tell what it depends upon for its 
sense of action, and also what it terminates upon as an object; 
then proceed with the mood, tense, &c.) 

3. Regular, Irregular, or Defective, and why ? 

4. Mood, and why ? 

5. Tense, and why ? 

6. Person and number, and why? (agreeably to Rule 1st.) 
6. — 1. A Participle, and why? 

2. From what verb is it derived ? 

3. What kind, and why ? 

4. What noun or pronoun does it refer to ? (agreeably to 
the 3d clause of Rule 1st.) 

7. — 1. An Adverb, and why ? 

2. What kind, and why ? 

3. If it can be compared, what degree, and why ? 

4. What does it qualify ? (agreeably to Rule 15th.) 

8. — 1. A Preposition, and why ? 

2. What two words does it connect? 

3. What is the influence of the adjunct formed by it ? 

4. If adverbial, what does it modify ? 

5. If it has the influence of an adjective, what does it 
modify ? 

6. Does its influence affect the subject or the predicate? 
(agreeably to Note 3d, under Rule 17th.) 

9. — I. A Conjunction, and why ? 

2. What kind, and why ? 

3. Does it connect sentences or words ? 

4. If sentences, by what Rule? (agreeably to Rule 
18th, 19th, or 20th. 

5. If words only, by what Rule ? (Agreeably to Rule 
2d or 3d, or 18th or 20th.) 

10 o — -1. An Interjection, and why ? 

2. What kind of emotion does it express ? 

3. It has no grammatical connection with other words, 
and why? See Q. and A., p. 122. 



SYNTAX — IMPORTANT RULES, &C. 153 

In parsing it seems strictly necessary to apply only the 1st, 
(2d, 3d, 4th,) 5th, 6th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 14th, 15th, 17th, 
18th, 19th, and 20th Rules; the 1st, 4th, 5th, and 6th notes 
under the first Rule, and the 4th note under the 11th Rule. 
The 2d, 3d, and 4th rules are only modifications of the 1st 
rule. The 7th, 12th, 13th, 16th, 21st, and 22d, are merely 
guides, or subsidiary to the others. It is certainly unneces- 
sary, if not an imposition, to burthen the mind of the learner 
by requiring him to commit and recite a greater number of 
rules than are necessary to guide him in the construction of 
sentences ; for, as he advances in the analysis of words and 
sentences, he is naturally inclined to throw off the burden of a 
useless multiplicity of rules, and hold only to those that seem 
of vital importance ; and having acquired a knowledge of the 
one all important rule upon which the rules and notes are based, 
i. e., " To be governed always by what the sense requires ," he 
finds it infinitely easier to command the sense and the con- 
struction, than if his reliance were solely upon rules that seem 
in some degree to have lost their import, and to operate longer 
only as a tax upon his time and memory, to the prejudice or 
hinderance of his future improvement. 

OFFICES OF WORDS, PHRASES, Ac. 

To the enquiring pupil, I cheerfully recommend the follow- 
ing illustration, as every way worthy of careful study: 

Example.* 
"God moves in a mysterious way, 
His wonders to perform ; 
He plants his footsteps in the sea, 
And rides upon the storm." 



* The above beautiful illustration will be found highly useful to the 
learner, in obtaining a correct knowledge of the offices and uses of 
words in proper construction. For which, as an extract, I am indebted 
to a late and excellent Grammar, by S. W. Clark. A.M. At the same 
time that I acknowledge my indebtedness to the author of the work al- 
luded to, it is due, also, to my old Preceptor, Jas. Cavenor, of Cape Gi- 
rardeau county, Mo., to say that I am wholly indebted to him for the 
originality of the plan. As far back as the winter of 1831, 1 was fortu- 
nately a member of a class taught by him, in the vicinity of Perryville, 
Mo., which circumstance, in connection with the name of J. Cavenor, and 
those of the members of the class, I shall ever cherish in fond and 
grateful remembrance. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Question. — Who is the person concerning whom 
something is asserted in the lines above ? 
Answer. — Something is said concerning " God: 9 
Q.—What is said of God ? 
A> — " God moves" 
Q. — How does God move? 
A. — "In a mysterious way" 

Q. — What way ? 

A. — "Mysterious way." 

Q. — What mysterious way? 

A. — "A mysterious way." 

Q.—« God moves in a mysterious way"— why 1 . 

A. — % His wonders to perform" 

Q. — To perform what wonders ? 

A. — " His wonders.' 5 

Q. — Concerning what is something more said ? 

A. — Something morels said concerning " God." 

Q. — Why do you think so ? 

A— Because in this connection* '" He" means "God." 

Q, — What is said concerning God ? 

A. — "He plants" 

Q. — He plants whatl 

A. — "Footsteps" 

Q. — What footsteps ? 

A. — ' * His footsteps." 

Q.— He plants his footsteps— where ? 

A. — "In the sea" 

Q. — In what seal; 
A.—" The sea." 

Q — What more is said of God ? 

A. — " He rides" 

Q. — Rides where* 1 . 

A — " Upon the storm." 

Q. — What storm ? 
A. — " The storm." 



stntax the use and offices of words. 155 

Use or Office of Words. 

Q. — In the lines above, what is the use or office 
of the word " God ?" 

A. — It is used as the name of the being who "moves." 

Q. — What is the use of the word " moves ?" 
A. — To tell what God does. 

Q. — Use of " in a mysterious way?" 

A. — To tell how God moves. 

Q._Use of "a?" 

A. — To tell what way. 

Q. — Use of "mysterious?" 

A. — To tell what kind of way. 

Q._Use of "way?" 

A. — To tell the name of the thing in which God moves. 

£._Use of " Ms?" 

A. — To tell what or whose wonders. 

Q. — Use of "wonders?" 

A.— To tell the name of the things which God moves to 
perform. 

Q. — Use of " to perform wonders ?" 
A. — To tell wherefore (why) God moves in a mysterious 
way. 

Q.— Use of " he ?" 

A. — As a substitute for the name of Him who plants and 
rides. 

Q.— Use of "plants?" 
A.— To tell what " He" does. 

Q._Use of " HsT 

A. — To tell whose footsteps. 

Q.— Use of "footsteps?" 

A. — To tell what he plants. 

Q. — Use of "in the sea?" 

A.-— To tell wherehe " plants his footsteps." 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q.— Use of "thel" 

A.— To tell what "sen." 

Q.— Use of "sea?" 

A. As the name of the thing in which he plants his foot- 
steps. 

q._ Use of " and ?" 

A, — To tell a second thing which He does. 

Q._Use of " ridesV 
A. — To tell what he does. 

Q. — Use of " upon the storm t 9 

A.— To tell where he rides. 

Q._Useof "theV 
A. — To tell what storm. 

Q._Use of " storm V 

A % To tell the name of the thing upon which he rides. 

The foregoing shows that "words have meaning ;" and 
that the meaning, very much, depends upon the maimer in 
which they are "put together." Often one word is equiva- 
lent to several others, and sometimes several words form an 
adjunct or phrase, the meaning of which may be expressed in 
one- as "In a mysterious way," means how ? or manner. 
« His wonders to perform " means why. « In the sea " means 
where, or place, &(C. 

For a similar Exercise. 

" My wakeful lay shall knock 
At the Oriental gates, and duly mock 
The early lark's shrill orisons, to be 
* An anthem* at the day's nativity." 

Cremshaw. 



*Tn the above, the noun anthem is nominative, after the verb '• tobe*' 
in apposition w th « lay." 4th Note under Rule 11th. Tobe an an- 
them &c The infinitive to be may be expanded into a complete propo- 
sition fas, that it may be an anthem, ftc. denoting the object or purpose 
of the'Zcw/— to be an anthem, $c. 



SYNTAX PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 157 

Having in the preceding pages given a comprehensive view 
of the order and construction of words and sentences, it will 
now be the business of the pupil to consider more minutely the 
purport of the rules of Syntax. A proper and prompt under- 
standing of which will be found of the highest importance . 

I have adopted the rules of Lindley Murray, because they 
are few in number, and I think more comprehensive and intel- 
ligible to the learner than any others that I have seen. 

These, when properly understood, cannot fail to conduct the 
pupil to a correct and extensive knowledge of the Syntax of the 
language. For the pupil to be able to repeat the rule by rote, 
is not full evidence that he understands its entire meaning ; 
he should examine every important word in the rule, and also 
in the example under it ; and otherwise analyze it as far as he 
may be capable of doing so ; being well assured that in pro- 
portion to his knowledge of the true purport of the rule, will be 
his progress in acquiring a knowledge of the correct analysis 
of the language. 

These rules have withstood the criticisms of more than fifty 
years, both in England and in the United States, during which 
time they have conducted thousands of the aspiring youth of 
both countries along the pathway of science to drink of the 
purest crystal stream that flows from the fount of knowledge. 

To the pupil, then, I will say, the rules of Syntax are to 
you what a written direction, or chart of the way, would be in 
the hands of a stranger, traveling in a strange country, with 
no other guide to point out to him his road or course, in the 
multiplicity of the highways, and by-ways, over which he 
must necessarily pass ; and in the meanderings of which, he is 
liable, almost at every step, to lose his way. How often, and 
how carefully, with the strictest scrutiny, would he examine 
those directions ? In every instance of doubt, would he not, 
with eagerness, consult what he now looks upon as his only 
hope for safety ? So, the rules of Syntax are your surest 
guides in obtaining' a knowledge of English Grammar ; and in 
the absence of a teacher, they are your only reliance ; and, in 
concurrence with your own will, and firm resolve to compre- 
hend them, they will become plain and intelligible, and every 
way sufficient to guide you in acquiring a knowledge of the de- 
pendence of words, and the construction of sentences ; than 
which, in an educational point of view, to you, perhaps, there 
is no other subject more highly important. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS, &c. 

Q. — How is Syntax divided ? 

A. — Into two parts, i. e., Concord and Government. 

Q. — Of what does Concord, in grammar, consist? 

A. — Concord consists in the general agreement of words, 
and sentences, but it will be considered here more particularly, 
in reference to the agreement that one word has with another, 
in Gender, Person, Number, and Case. 

Q. — Of what does Government consist ? 
A. — Government consists in the power or influence that one 
word has over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 

Q. — Are there certain rules that treat of agree- 
ment or concord; and others that treat of govern- 
ment ? 

A. — Yes ; and some aid maybe derived from the following 
classifications, to wit: Rules 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15, 
16, 18, 20, 21, and 22, treat upon the subject of agreement; 
and Rules 6, 10, 11, 12, 14, 17, 19, 20, and 22, treat of 
government. Rule 6th is a guide to the case of the relative 
pronoun, and Rule 20th is a guide to the case of nouns and 
pronouns after words of comparison ; and Rule 22d is compre- 
hensive of all the rules and notes of Syntax. The 8th, 9th, 
and 15th, refer to the modification of words which of course, 
must have an agreement with the words they qualify. The 21st 
has reference to ellipsis, or omission, which must be supplied, or 
understood in the mind to show agreement. It will be seen that 
some (the 6th, 20th, and 22d,) of the rules apply to both con- 
cord and government. The rules of Syntax are designed to 
show the natural dependence and construction of words in a 
sentence; hence, the importance of always looking for the 
"sense" required in keeping with the subject and predicate, 
logical and grammatical. 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 
Rule I. 

1st. Clause. A verb must agree with its nomi- 
native case in number and person ; as, "I am ; 



SYNTAX RULE 0I7E. 159 

Thou art ; He is ; I write; Thou writest ; He 
writes or writeth ; John writes ; The birds sing" 
(See the conjugation of verbs.) 

2d. The subject of a finite verb is put in the 
nominative case. 

3d. Every participle refers to some noun or 
pronoun denoting its subject or agent. 

Note 1 .—The infinitive mood or part of a sentence is some- 
times put as the nominative case to the verb ; as, " To see the 
sun is pleasant;" " To be good is to be happy;" " That warm 
climates should accellerate the growth of the human body, 
and shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe;" "To 
be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the 
open air, and to preserve the mind free from tumultuous emo- 
tions, are the best preservatives of health." 

Note 2.— Every verb, except the infinitive mood, must have 
a nominative case, either expressed or implied ; as, Awake; 
Arise; i. e. awake thou ; arise thou; (or ye or you). 

Note 3. — Every nominative, except the case absolute, and 
the case independent belongs to some verb, either expressed or 
implied ; as, " Who wrote that ?** "James;" i. e. James wrote it. 

Note 4. — When a verb comes between two nouns either of 
which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, it 
may agree with either of them ; but some regard must be 
had to that which is most naturally the subject of it, as also 
to that which stands next to the verb ; as, " His meat was lo- 
custs and wild honey;" " A great cause of the low estate of 
industry, were the restraints put upon it;" "The wages of 
sin is death." 

Note 5. — When a noun, or pronoun, or phrase, &c. is 
placed before a participle, having no personal tense of a verb 
to agree with it, it is in the nominative case absolute ; as, 
" Shame being lost, all virtue is lost;" " The sunbeing up, we 
started;" "His low estate in life having been considered, he 
was more comfortably provided for." 

Note 6. — A noun or pronoun used in direct address, having 
no personal tense of a verb to agree with it, is in the nomina- 
tive case independent; as " Ye men of Judea ; why stand ye 
gazing up into heaven V\ "James, come to me;" "Ye 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

whom the charms of grammar please," &c; " Come, my 
soul, and let us try," &c. 

The nominative case is generally placed before the verb. 
The instances in which it is sometimes placed after it, or other- 
wise, are the following : 

1. When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish 
expressed, the nominative is placed after the verb ; as, " Lovest 
thou me ?" " Dost thou love me ?" " Read thou;" '- Mayest 
thou be happy." 

2. When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; 
as, " Were it not for this, he had been there;" " had I 
the wings of a dove," &c. 

3. In the use of the figure, ca^ed Hyperbaton ; as, " Then 
came the tug of war ;" " Now come we to the last." 

4. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, then here, 
there, thence, &c. as, " Then cometh the end;" " Thence 
ariseth his grief;" '' Thus ivas the affair settled." 

5. When the sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be 
coupled with another sentence ; as, " Ye shall not eat of it, 
neither shall ye touch it, lest you die." 

6. When an emphatical adjective introduces the sentence ; 
as, "Happy is the man, whose heart does not reprove him," 

Rule II. 

Two or more nouns, &c, in the singular num- 
ber joined together by a copulative conjunction, 
expressed or understood, must have verbs, nouns, 
and pronouns agreeing with them in the plural 
number; as, " Socrates and Plato were wise; 
they were the most eminent philosophers of 
Greece/ 5 

Note 1 . — No matter how closely two or more nouns are re- 
lated to each other in meaning, if joined as in the above rule, 
the verb, &c. must be plural; as, "Tranquility and peace 
dwell there." 

Note 2. — In complex sentences, such as, "The ship with 
all her furniture were destroyed," we should be careful not to 
associate a noun in the objective case, with a noun in the nomi- 
native case, and thereby render the verb plural. The noun 



SYNTAX RULE THREE. 161 

ship, alone, is nominative to the verb which should be was, 
instead of were, agreeably to rule 1st. " The side A, with the 
sides B and C compose a triangle," is also incorrect; with is 
not a conjunction, but a preposition requiring the objective 
case after it (by rule 17), leaving one side, A, to compose a 
triangle. It should be the sides, A, B, and C, compise the 
triangle, this preserves the rule from being violated, and is in 
accordance with the simplicity of the language. 

Note 3. — If singular nouns and pronouns, joined together 
by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making 
pronouns agree with them in person, the second person takes 
place of the third, and the first, of both; as, " James, and 
thou and / are attached to our country." " Thou and he 
shared it between you." 

Rule Ill- 
Two or more nouns and pronouns, &c, in the 
singular number, joined together by a disjunctive 
conjunction, must have verbs, nouns, and pro- 
nouns agreeing with them in the singular; as, 
" John, James, or Mary, intends to accompany 
me." In this construction the verb refers to 
the preceding terms taken separately, and con- 
sequently must be in the singular, agreeably to 
Rule 1st; as, "One of them intends to go; if 
Mary, she will return soon ; if James, he will 
stay during the winter." See Rule 5th. 

Note 1 . — When singular pronouns, or a noun and a pro- 
noun of different persons are disjunctively connected, the verb 
must agree in person with that which is placed nearest to it; 
as, "/or thou art to blame ;" "/, or thou, or he is to blame." 

Note 2. — When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun 
or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the 
plural one ; as, "neither poverty nor riches were injurious to 
him." "He or they were offended at it." But in instances of 
this kind, when it can conveniently be done, the plural nomi- 
native should be placed next to the verb. 

Note 3, — It is well to remark here that conjunctions often 
connect modifying words in the same construction. Phrases so 
7* 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

formed are disposed of as their qualifying influence may sug- 
gest; otherwise, the ellipsis must be supplied, and the qualified 
words made to appear. See Rule 21st, Ellipsis of the Adverb; 
Abridged Propositions. 

Rule IV. 

A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may 
have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it either in 
the singular or the plural number ; yet not with- 
out regard to the import of the word, as convey- 
ing unity or plurality of idea. If the idea be that 
of unity, the verb or pronoun must be singular. 
If the idea be that of plurality, the verb or pro- 
noun must be plural. 

Examples of Unity. 

The meeting was large ; it is still going on. 

The Congress is in session ; but it will soon adjourn. 

The nation is powerful ; and it is increasing in strength. 

The council has assembled ; it is a very respectable body. 

The committee is in the room ; it is very full. 

A hundred is ten times ten. 

A score is twenty units. 

A dozen is twice six. 

Examples of Plurality. 

" My people do not consider ; they have not known me." 
The council were divided in their sentiments. 
A hundred men were there. 

The multitude pursue pleasure as their chief good. 
The assembly are likely to agree in their opinions. 
The fleet are all arrived, and moored in safety. 
The peasantry go barefoot, while the middle sort make use 
of wodden shoes. t 

The clergy have withdrawn from the temporal courts. 

The purport of the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th rules is, that the 
verb must agree with its grammatical subject, without respect 
to the logical subject. 



w 

SYNTAX RULE FIVE. 163 

Rule V. 

Pronouns must always agree with their antece- 
dents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gen- 
der, person, and number; as, " This is the friend 
whom I love." " That is the vice which I hate." 
" The moon, queen of night, appears, and she 
shines, but her light is not her own." " The sun 
is called the king of day, because he sheds his 
light abroad, eclipsing all lesser lights; and it is 
his influence that invigorates the earth, and causes 
her to send forth her fruits to the comfort and 
happiness of man, while in his state of dull mor- 
tality." 

Remark 1. — Every relative pronoun except when used in- 
terrogatively, must have an antecedent either expressed or 
implied, with which it must agree: as, " Who is fatal to 
others, is so to himself;" i. e. " He who, or the man who, is 
fatal, &c." 

Remark 2. — Who, which, what and that (when the latter is a 
relative), when in the objective case governed by a verb, are 
generally placed before the governing verb ; as well as their 
compounds, whoever, whosoever, whomsoever, &c; as, " He 
whom ye seek will come," &c; " Whomsoever you please to 
appoint," &c. 

Remark 3. — What is often used to represent two cases; and 
of course two words ; as, "I heard what (that which) he 
said." "He related what (that which) was said." "Ac- 
cording to what (that which) was proposed." Sometimes the 
word what is equivalent in meaning to three words ; the 
thing (or things) which, or those things which; as, <( what 
he wanted are the things which you gave him." Or, ichat 
things happened unto you, also happened unto me ; i. e. those 
things which. In this latter sentence the word what is equiva- 
lent only to the two words, those which, the noun things being- 
expressed, in which sense it is a compound adjective pronoun ; 
those being an adjective pronoun, and which, a relative pro- 
noun. See Tmesis. Figures of Etymology. 

Remark 4. — In some instances the relative is introduced be- 
fore the clause, word, or sentence which it represents; as, 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" There was, therefore, [which is all that we assert,) a course 
of life pursued by them different from that which they had be- 
fore led." Here the relative which, in parenthesis, is the 
representative of what is asserted in the other part of the 
sentence, beginning with, " There was, therefore, a course of 
life." &c. The natural order of the sentence would be, 
" There was, therefore, a course of life pursued by them, diffe- 
rent from that which they had before led, uihich is all that we 
intend to assert ••" or, " All that we intend to assert is, there 
was," &c. 

Remark 5. — Whatever relative relating to the same antece- 
dent, is used in one of a series of clauses, ought also to be 
used in all the clauses ; the following is therefore a violation 
of this principle; "It is remarkable, that Holland, against 
which the war was undertaken, and that in the very beginning 
was reduced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing." 

Remark 6. — The relative often refers to an entire clause, or to 
to an entire sentence, as in remark 4th, and sometimes to several 
clauses or sentences taken together ; and not particularly to any 
one word in them ; as, " The resolution was adopted hastily, 
and without due consideration, which produced great dissatisfac- 
tion." " He reads attentively six hours every day, he takes 
too much exercise in the sunshine, and too often exposes him- 
self unnecessarily to inclement weather, either of the night or 
day; which (things) are enough to break down the stoutest 
constitution." See also Gal. iv, 24. 

Note 1. — Personal pronouns being used to supply the place 
of the nouns, should not be used in the same part of the sen- 
tence as the nouns which they represent ; it would be improper 
to say, "The men where are they?" Or, " Solomon, he was a 
wise man." Neither should a relative and a personal pronoun 
representing the same person or thing, be used in the same 
case, in the same sentence ; as, " Who instead of going about 
doing good, they are continually intent upon doing mischief." 
See Pleonasm — Index. 

A noun placed before a participle, and its pronoun following 
it in the nominative case to the verb, does not constitute 
the case absolute; as, "The candidate being chosen, he was 
carried in triumph by the people," he is superfluous, and can- 
didate is nominative to the verb. The case absolute would be, 
" The candidate being chosen, the people carried him'm triumph." 

Note 2. — The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons 
as well as to things ; after an adjective in the superlative degree, 



SYNTAX RULE FIVE. 165 

and after the demonstrative adjective pronoun same, it is gene- 
rally used in preference to who or which ; as, " Charles, King 
of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world 
ever saw." " He is the same man that we saw before." But 
if after the word same, a preposition should precede the rela- 
tive, icho or which should be used instead of that ; the latter 
not admitting a preposition to govern it. It is a little remarka- 
ble, however, that when the arrangement is a little varied, the 
word that does admit the preposition to govern it, as, " He is 
the same man that you were acquainted with." But place 
the preposition between man and that, and you will see that 
the pronoun whom or tvhich will be required instead of that. 

There are cases wherein we cannot conveniently dispense 
with the relative that, as applied to persons ; first, after the 
relative who, as an interrogative; as, ■" Who, that has any 
sense of religion, would have argued thus ?" Secondly, when 
persons make but a part of the antecedent ; as, " The woman 
and the estate, that became his portion, were rewards far be- 
yond his desert/' In neither of these examples could any 
other relative be used. 

Note 3. — The pronouns whichsoever, whosoever, and the like, 
are elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding 
nouns ; thus, " On whichsoever side the King cast his eyes/' 
would have sounded better if written, " On which side soever," 
&c. See Tmesis. Index. 

Note 4. — The pronouns them and they, should not be used in 
place of these and those ; as, " Give me them books ;" it should 
be those books. Nor the pronoun those in the place of they, 
when there is no particular reference to an antecedent ; as, 
"Those who sow in tears sometimes reap in joy;" for they 
who, or they that sow, fyc. 

Note 5. — The word what is often improperly used, instead 
of the word that; as, "They will never believe but what I have 
been entirely to blame ;" " I am not satisfied but what it is so or 
so." In both cases it ought to be that instead of what. The 
word somewhat is also often improperly used ; it is either an 
adverb or a noun in sense ; if it be used as an adverb, it should 
have its proper location in the sentence ; thus, " These punish- 
ments seem to have been inflicted in somewhat an arbitrary 
manner." It seems here to qualify the adjective arbitrary , 
and should have its place either between the article and the 
adjective ; as, " in a somewhat arbitrary manner;" or after the 
noun and article; thus, "in a manner somewhat arbitrary." 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If it be used as a pronoun or noun, it should be properly re- 
garded in reference to its case; as, " 1 learned somewhat of 
his character to-day ;" i. e. " I learned something of," &c. 

Note 6. — The relative who is so much applied to persons, that 
there is generally harshness in the application of it, except to pro- 
per names of persons, or the general term man, woman, &c. A 
term which only implies the idea of persons, and expresses 
them by some circumstance or epithet, will hardly authorize 
the use of it; as, " That faction who." " France, who was in 
alliance with Sweden." "The court who.' 9 "The cavalry 
who." " The cities who." Which or that, in each of these 
cases, would have been better. 

But when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, it 
may, in many cases, claim the personal relative who; as, 
"None of the company whom he most affected, could cure 
him," &c. 

Note 7. — We hardly consider little children as persons, be- 
cause that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection ; and 
therefore the application of the personal relative who, to them, 
seems harsh and inappropriate; as, "The child who,' 3 or 
" whomJ' It should be, " The child that" 

The personal pronoun it, though neuter, is applied when we 
speak of an infant, or child whose sex is unknown ; as, li lt is 
a lovely infant/' "It is a healthy child." The relative who 
should not be applied to animals below the order of man, or to 
inanimate objects, as it implies reason and reflection. It 
should not be applied to little children. Whose, however, be 
it remembered, is used as the possessive form of the relative 
which, and in this sense applies to things, &c, as the relative 
which. See the declension of pronouns. 

Note 8. — When the name of a person is used mere^ as a 
name, without reference to the person, the pronoun who should 
not be used ; as, " It is no wonder, if such a person did not 
shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, who was but another 
name for prudence and economy." Better — " whose name was 
but another name for prudence," &c. 

In one case, however, custom has authorized the use of 
which with respect to persons ; that is, when we want to dis- 
tinguish one of two ; or a particular person among a number 
of others ; as, " which of the two ? or which one of them is 
he?" 

Note 9. — As the relative pronoun has no distinction of num- 
ber, we sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it ; as, when 



SYNTAX RULE FIVE. 167 

we say, " The disciples of Christ whom we imitate ;" we may- 
mean the imitation either of Christ or of his disciples. The 
accuracy and clearness of the sentence depends very much 
upon the proper and determinate use of the relative pronoun, 
as regards its position in the sentence ; in all cases, when it 
can be done with convenience, the relative should be placed 
immediately after its antecedent, so that it may readily present 
to the mind of the reader or hearer, what is intended by its 
use. See Punctuation, Rule 11, on the comma. 

Note 10. — The pronoun it is often used in a singular or a plural 
construction, in connection with either masculine, feminine, or 
neuter gender ; as, " It is the man I see ;" " It is a woman;" 
" It is the people shouting ;" " It is I;" ". It is he ;" " It is 
she ;" " It is they; " " Who is it?" It rains, " What is it?" 
"It is cold weather ';'■' " It is dark." The pronoun it in such 
cases is, by some authors, said to be an " impersonal pronoun ;" 
but when properly considered it will be found that it always 
represents something ; and the reason for its being so often 
used without regard to gender, person, or number, is because 
the thing or things intended to be represented by it, are but 
vaguely known, or are not sufficiently definite to justify the use of 
pronouns properly answerable to the circumstances of gender, 
person, and number. If I see an object at a distance, I may 
ask "What is it ?" You, seeing clearer than I, say, "It is a 
man;" I say "It rains;" you ask " What rains." My answer 
is " a combination of circumstances, in whole or in part, unknown 
to me, causes a shower of water to fall from the cloud." The 
word it often represents not only a combination of causes, &c. 
but it also often represents a plurality of things ; a phrase, a 
part of a sentence, or a whole sentence ; as, " It is better to do 
right than to do wrong." " It is doing right that entitles us to 
respect; it is not our doing much ;" "It is pleasant to see 
brothers and sisters living in love and harmony." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express — 

1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry ; as, " It hap- 
pened on a summer's day ;" " Who is it that calls me ?" 

2d. The state or condition of a person or thing ; as, " How 
is it with you ?" 

3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect, 
or event ; or any person considered merely as a cause ; as, 
"we heard her say it was not he;" " The truth is, it was / 
that helped her." 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule VI. 

1st. The relative is the nominative to the verb, 
when no nominative comes between it and the 
verb ; as, " The master who taught us, will be 
here again;" ", The trees which are planted/' &c. 

2. When a nominative comes between the rela- 
tive and the verb, the relative is governed by the 
following verb, or some other word in its own mem- 
ber of the sentence; as, "He who preserves me, 
to whom I owe my being, whose (servant) I am, 
is eternal." 

Remark 1. — In the several members of the example in the 
second clause of the 6th Rule, the relative who is found in the 
three cases ; in the first member it is nominative to the verb pre- 
serves, agreeably to the first clause of the 6th Rule ; in the 
second member it is in the objective case, governed by the pre- 
position to, by Rule 17th, and agreeably to the second clause 
of Rule 6 th; in the third member it is in \hz possessive case, 
governed by the noun servant, understood, by Rule 10th, and 
also agreeably to the second clause of Rule 6th. 

Remark 2. — When both the antecedent and the relative be- 
come nominatives, (each to different verbs, of course,) the re- 
lative is nominative to the first finite verb after it, (and which 
is introduced by the relative, and called the relative clause,) 
and the antecedent is nominative to some other verb, called the 
leading verb, and its sentence the leading sentence; as, "True 
philanthropy, which is the ornament of our nature, consists in 
the love of our duty, aud the practice of virtue." 

Remark 3. — By not understanding properly the construction 
of sentences, the pupil is liable to be led astray in regard to 
the first clause of the 6th Rule; he will therefore observe the 
following sentence : "If you were here, you would find three 
or four who, you would say, passed their time agreeably." In 
which the pronoun you comes between the relative who, and 
the verb would say ; which is truly the first verb after the re- 
lative who, but it must be borne in mind that every nomina- 
tive not connected to another by the copulative conjunction, 
has reference to its own verb, in its own sentence, which, if 



SYNTAX RULE SEVEN. 169 

compound, is connected to another sentence by a conjunction, 
or a relative pronoun ; in the sentence above, the conjunction 
as, [understood,) connects the clauses ; you is nominative to 
the verb would say, and who is nominative to the verb passed. 
Every relative pronoun (as well as every other word in con- 
nection,) has reference to its own member or clause of the sen- 
tence. To see it more clearly, let the pupil include in paren- 
thesis, the words as you would say, and read the rest of the 
sentence without them ; after this is done, let him then look 
for the influence the parenthetic clause has upon what follows 
it. It has the force of an adverb, on the verb passed. The 
same in regard to the clause introduced by if, which also has 
the force of an adverb on the verb would find. The whole 
sentence may be arranged thus, 

' 'You would find (if you were here,) three or four (persons) 
who passed (as you would say,) their time agreeably." 

JSTote 1. — When the relative is of the interrogative kind, it 
has no antecedent, but refers to the subsequent or answer to 
the question, with which subsequent (noun or pronoun con- 
tained in the answer,) it must agree in case; as, " Whose 
books are these ?" "John's." " Who gave them to him?" 
" We." " Of whom did you buy them ?" "Of a bookseller :" 
That is, " John's books ;" "We gave," &c. ; "we bought them 
of a bookseller;" " Whom say ye that I am?" "Peter an- 
swered and said, Thou art the Christ," &c. Mat. xvi. 15, 16. 
In this latter example, the relative whom should be who, to 
agree with the noun Christ, which is the predicate nomi- 
native after art, agreeably to the 4th note under Rule 11th, 
and agreeably to the above note. 

Rule VII. 

When the relative is preceded by two nomina- 
tives of different persons, the relative may agree 
in person with either of them, according to the 
sense ; as, "I am the man who command you." 
Or, "I am the man who commands you." 

Eemark 1. — Whether the meaning of the two expressions 
be identical or not, is not what this rule is designed to estab- 
lish. Its design is to teach us the impropriety of altering, in 
the same sentence or paragraph, the relation or agreement first 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

assumed; as, "I am the Lord that maketh all things, that 
stretcheth forth the heavens alone, that spreadeth abroad the 
earth by myself/' &c. The verb maketh shows that the pro- 
noun that, its nominative, agrees with Lord, its antecedent, 
agreeably to Rule 5th, and consequently it (the pronoun that A 
takes a verb in the third person, singular, to agree with it, 
agreeably to Rule 1st, and this order must not be changed. 
If the pronoun that, and the verb had assumed the order of 
the first person, agreeing with 7, as the antecedent, it would 
be equally wrong, afterward, to change it to the third person ; 
in either case there would arise confusion of persons, and a 
manifest solecism, vitally at war with the principle of concord 
which the rule is designed to establish. 

Rule VIII. 

1. Every adjective, and every adjective pro- 
noun, belongs to a noun either expressed or un- 
derstood ; as, " He is a good, as well as a wise 
man ;" "Few are happy;' 5 that is, "few persons 
are happy." 

2. Adjective pronouns must agree in number 
with their nouns; as, "This book;" "these 
books ;" " one man ;" " twenty men." 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Note 1. — The word means in the singular number, and the 
phrases "By this means/' "By that means;" seem to be 
exceptions to the second clause of this rule; as, "By this 
means they bear witness to each other." " There is no means 
of escaping the persecution." 

The word amends is used in the singular or plural ; as, 
" Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of 
his country; and with this amends he was content." "Peace 
of mind is an honorable amends for the sacrifices of interest." 
"In return, he received the thanks of his employers, and the 
present of a large estate ; ihese were ample amends for all his 
labors." "We have described the rewards of vice; the good 
man's amends are of a different nature." 

These forms of expression seem to be established by the 



SYNTAX RULE EIGHT. 171 

practice of the best speakers and writers, or a majority of them ; 
and are corroborated by general usage ; which two circum- 
stances, taken together, are sufficient to establish the perma- 
nency of expression in any age ; and with respect, therefore, 
to the anomalies and variations of language thus established, it 
is the grammarians business to submit, not to remonstrate. 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within 
the grammarians province. Here he may reason and remon- 
strate, and his reasonings may refine and improve the language; 
but when authority speaks out and decides the point, it were 
perpetually to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and 
debate. Anomalies, then, under the limitation mentioned, 
become the law, as clearly as the plainest analogies. 

2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, 
and there is occasion to mention them again for the sake of 
distinction, that is used in reference to the former, and this in 
reference to the latter; as, "Self-love, which is the spring of 
action in the soul, is ruled by reason; but for that, (self-love,) 
man would be inactive ; and but for this, (reason,) he would 
be active to no purpose." 

When things are spoken of in contradistinction, this, or these 
refers to the nearest objects ; that or those to others farther off, 

3. The distributive adjective pronouns each, every, and 
either, agree with nouns, pronouns, and verbs of the singular 
number only ; as, " The King of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the 
King of Judah, sat each on his throne." "Every tree is 
known by its fruit." Unless the plural noun convey a collec- 
tive idea ; as, "Every six months ;" "Every hundred years." 
In this construction, the idea is that of unity ; (See Rule 4th,) 
as, "Every hundred years is a century;" "Each dozen is put 
up in order." The conjunction and coming between the words 
every and every, does not make it right to use the plural form 
of the verb ; as, "Every town and every village was (not were) 
destroyed." 

ADJECTIVES. 

Note 4.- — Adjectives are sometimes improperly used as ad- 
verbs; as, "Indifferent honest ;" "Miserable poor ;" "Agreea- 
ble to my promise, I now write;" "Thy exceeding great re- 
ward." These adjectives should be converted into adverbs by 
adding ly to the termination ; as "Indifferently honest," &c, 
for the adverb qualifies the adjective (by Rule 15th,) whereas 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

adjectives only qualify nouns, (by Rule 8th). Remember, 
when the word exceeding is united to an adjective, or an adverb 
not ending in ly, it has ly added to it ; as, " Exceedingly dread- 
ful;'' " Exceedingly great;" " Exceedingly well;" " Exceedingly 
active.' * But when the word exceeding is added to an adverb 
or an adjective ending in ly, it does not require the ly to be 
added to it ; as, "some men think exceeding clearly;" "She 
appeared on this occasion exceeding lovely" &c. The adjective 
pronoun such is often improperly used for the adverb so ; as, 
"He was such an extravagant young man." It should be, 
"So extravagant," &c. "Such large trees," for "trees so 
large." When we refer to the species or nature of things, the 
word such is properly applied ; as, " Such a temper is seldom 
found." But where degree of quality, &c, is signified, the 
word so is proper ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 

Adverbs are likewise often improperly used as adjectives ; 
as, "The study of Syntax should be previously to that of punc- 
tuation ;" "previous to that," &c, would be right. 

-Note 5. — Double comparatives and superlatives should be 
avoided; as, "Wbrser conduct;" "On lesser hopes;" "The 
most straitest sect;" •' A more superior work." They should be 
worse, less ; and leave off the words more and most; for the 
adjectives straitest and superior are already in the superlative 
degree. For the latter see note 6th, below. 

Note 6. — Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative 
signification, do not properly admit of comparison ; such as, 
chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme, &c, The ad- 
verb so added to these words, and others of similar character, 
is also incorrect ; for it implies that one thing is less perfect, 
less extreme, &c, than another ; which is impossible. We may 
say one thing approaches perfection in a greater or less degree 
than another. And, instead of the extremest, more or most ex- 
treme, which are also double comparisons, we should change 
the phraseology, so as to express the same thing, as near- 
ly as we can, in words properly admitting the degrees ; as, 
farther, farthest ; most distant to the view; the most refined ; 
beyond all others ; most minute, or something similar, in keep- 
ing with the comparison. 

Note 7. — It is not proper to use the comparative degree as 
if it were the superlative ; nor the superlative as if it were the 
comparative ; as, " The largest of the two' 9 ; for here the com- 
parison is made between only two, which requires the compara- 
tive degree ; as, " The larger of the two ;" nor, " The larger of 



SYNTAX RULE EIGHT. 173 

the three ;" for here three things are compared, and of course 
the superlative is to be used; as, "The largest of the three" The 
following are also improper constructions of the degrees of 
comparison; " This noble nation hath, of all others, admitted 
fewer corruptions." The word fewer is here used precisely as 
if it were the superlative ; for more than two things are brought 
to view in the comparison ; and in all such cases, the superla- 
tive is required. Also, " The vice of covetousness is what en- 
ters deepest into the soul, of any other." This is also wrong ; 
for, other means but one ; and in comparing the vice of covet- 
ousness with it, or whatever vice it may be, we have but two in 
the comparison, and therefore the superlative is improper; it 
should be deeper instead of deepest. Or, if we change the 
phraseology, and retain the superlative, thus, u Covetousness, of 
all other vices, enter the deepest into the soul," it still is incor- 
rect ; for we are using adjectives for adverbs ; it should be, 
" Covetousness, of all other vices, enters most deeply into the 
soul.'' The object of this note is to guard you against the 
using of adjectives for adverbs, and of using adverbs for adjec- 
tives ; also against the using of one degree of comparison for 
another. Concord being the subject, harmony must be ob- 
served. 

Note 8. — The adjective is usually placed before the noun it 
qualifies ; as "A good man ;" "an amiable woman." The in- 
stances in which it comes after the noun which it qualifies 
are the following : 

1st. When something depends on the adjective as the eu- 
phony of the sentence, (the agreeableness of sound,) especially 
in poetry ; as, "& man, generous to his enemies." "Feed me 
with food convenient for me," "A tree three feet thick" (See 
anomalies.) 

2d. When the adjective is emphatical, as "Alexander the 
great ;" "Goodness infinite ;" "Wisdom unsearchable" 

3d. When several adjectives belong to the same noun, as, "A 
man, just, wise and charitable;" "A woman, modest, sensible 
and virtuous." 

4th. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb ; as, "A 
boy regularly studious ;" "A girl unaffectedly modest." 

5th. Wl en the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes be- 
tween a noun and its adjective, the adjective may frequently 
either precede or follow it ; as, "The man is happy," or "happy 
is the man who makes virtue his choice." "The interview was 
delightful" Or, "delightful was the interview." 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a 
noun, placed after an active transitive verb : as, "Vanity often 
renders its possessor despicable" In an exclamatory sentence, 
the adjective generally precedes the noun; as, "How despicable 
does vanity often render its possessor?" 

There is sometimes beauty as well as force in placing the 
adjective before the verb, and the noun immediately after it ; 
as, "Great is the Lord ! Just and true are thy ways, thou 
King of Saints." 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number 
of nouns^ (fee, all of which are comprehended under it ; as, 
"Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred, &c." 

An adjective pronoun in the plural number will sometimes 
properly associate with a singular noun; as, " Our desire;" 
"their resignation" This exception to the general rule applies 
to things of an intellectual, rather than to those of a corporeal 
nature. 

Sometimes the adjective becomes a noun and has another 
adjective joined to it ; "The chief good ;" "The vast immense 
of space." 

Some adjectives of number are more easily converted into 
nouns than others. Thus, we more readily say, "A million of 
men, than a thousand of men." On the other hand, it will 
hardly be allowable to say, "A million men" whereas (< A 
thousand men" is quite familiar. Yet in the plural number, a 
different construction seems to be required. We say, "some 
hundreds ," or "thousands," as well as "millions of men" 

When an adjective has a preposition before it, and a noun 
seems to be understood, the words assume the force of an ad- 
verb, and maybe considered an adverbial phrase; as, "in 
general;" "in particular;" "in common;" "in vain." They are 
adjuncts equal to the adverbs, generally, particularly, com- 
monly, vainly, &c. 

Rule IX, 

1. The indefinite article a or an agrees with 
nouns in the singular number only, individually 
or collectively; as, "A christian, an infidel, a 
peach, an apple, a score, a thousand." 

2. The definite article the agrees with nouns 



SYNTAX RULE NINE. 175 

either in the singular or plural number ; as, "The 
christians, the infidels, the horse, the horses, the 
apple, the apples. 5 ' 

Remark 1. — A noun without an article to limit it, is taken in 
a general sense; as, "Man is the noblest work of God;" 
that is, mankind. "Man was made for society, and ought to 
extend his good will to all men; but a man will naturally en- 
tertain a more particular kindness for the men with whom he 
has the most intimate intercourse, and enter into a still closer 
union with the man whose temper and disposition suit best with 
his own." 

Note 1. — A nice distinction of sense is sometimes made by 
the use or omission of the article a. If I say " He behaved with 
a little reverence," my meaning is positive; if I say, "He be- 
haved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. The 
former expression rather praises a man ; the latter dispraises 
him. To say, " There were few men with him," the meaning 
is diminutive, and represents them as inconsiderable. To say, 
" There were a few men with him," the meaning is evidently to 
make the most of them, and to represent the company as re- 
spectable as to number as truth will justify. 

Note 2. — For the sake of emphasis, we often repeat the article 
in a series of epithets ; as, " He hoped that his title would secure 
him an ample and an independent authority." In general, it 
may be sufficient only to prefix the article to the former of two 
words in the same construction; as, "He stayed a day and 
night." 

Note 3. — In familiar style, we frequently omit the articles, 
which might be inserted, with propriety, in writing, especially in 
a grave style ; as, "at first," for " at the first ;" "at worst," for 
"at the worst." 

The definite article has frequently the meaning of the pos- 
sessive pronoun his, and the indefinite article, that of the distri- 
butive pronoun every or either ; as, "He looked him full in the 
face ;" i. e., his face ; " They cost ten cents a dozen ;" i. e., each 
or every dozen. 

"A man he was to all his country dear, 
And passing rich, with forty pounds a year." 

There is a particular use of the article, which deserves more 
than merely a passing notice, as ambiguity may, by its use or 
omission, be avoided. Thus : If we say, " He is a better soldier 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

than scholar" the expression is equivalent to " He is more war- 
like than learned ;" or, " He possesses the qualities which form the 
soldier in a greater degree than he does those which constitute 
the scholar" If we say, " He would make a better soldier than 
a scholar," the article being prefixed also to the second term, 
renders the meaning thus: "He would make a better soldier 
than a scholar would make." These phraseologies ^re fre- 
quently confounded, and their improper use or omission seldom 
fails to obscure the meaning. In the former case, the article, 
being affixed only to the first term, shows that the subject is 
compared with itself, as possessing different qualities in different 
degrees ; in the latter case, the article being affixed to both the 
former and the latter term, shows that the subject is compared, 
not with respect to different qualities possessed by itself, but 
with those of a different individual. See Rule 20th, and notes. 

Rule X. 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is- 
governed by the noun which it possesses; as, 
"My father's house;" "Man's happiness/' " This 
book is mine ;" " That book is his." 

Remark. — The pronoun his, when detached from the noun, 
as in the above example, is properly in the possessive case, by 
Rule 10th. "Is his" is the predicate, in which is is the copula 
and his the attribute. It is thus used to assert possession only. 
But when this pronoun is placed before a noun, it is a possessive 
adjective pronoun, purely a word of restriction or limitation, and 
is disposed of by Rule 8th. The same may be said of the words 
mine, thine, hers, ours, yours and theirs. 

Note 1. — If several nouns come together in the possessive 
case, the apostrophe ( ' ) with s is annexed to the last, and un- 
derstood to the rest; as, "John and Eliza's books;" "This 
was my father, mother and uncle's advice ;" but when a word 
intervenes, the sign of the possessive case is annexed to each ; 
as "They are John's as well as Eliza's books;" "I had the 
physician's, the surgeon's and the apothecary's advice." It is 
better, however, when the sense will admit of it, to use the pre- 
position of, when many names, as owners, are mentioned ; as, 
"It was the advice of my father, mother and uncle;" or thus, 
"The estate belongs to Henry, William and Joseph." 



SYNTAX RULE TEN. 177 

When anything is considered as the common property of 
two or more persons, the sign of the possessive case, is affixed 
only to the name of the last person; as "This is Henry y 
William, and Joseph's estate." 

But when several things are considered, as belonging sepa- 
rately to distinct individuals, it is right to annex the possessive 
sign to the name of each person designated; as, "These are 
Henry's, William's and Joseph's estates." 

Note 2. — In poetry, the possessive s is frequently omitted, 
but the apostrophe is retained ; as, "The wrath of Pelius' son." 
This seems not so allowable in prose, which the following 
erroneous examples will demonstrate: "Moses' minister;" 
"Phineas' wife ;" "The witness' question." But in cases 
which would give too much of a hissing sound, or increase the 
difficulty of pronunciation, the omission is allowable even in 
prose. 

Note 3. — Little explanatory circumstances are particularly 
awkward, between the possessive case and the word denoting 
the thing possessed; as, "She began to extol the farmer's, as 
she called him, excellent understanding ;" better to say, "The 
excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

Note 4. — When a sentence consists of terms signifying a 
name and an office, or any expressions by which one part is 
descriptive or explanatory of the other, it may occasion some 
doubt as to which of them the sign of the possessive case 
should be annexed ; or whether it should be annexed to both. 
The following rule will, therefore, serve to unfold its principles, 
and to direct the pupil to its proper use, to wit: A phrase, in 
which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit 
of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the 
possessive sign at or near the end of the phrase ; as, " Whose 
prerogative is it? It is the King of Great Britain's;" "That 
is the Duke of Bridgewater's canal ;" "The Lord Mayor of 
London's authority;" "The captain of the guard's house." 
When names in apposition follow each other in quick succes- 
sion, the same rule should be observed; as, "The President 
Fillmore's administration ;" "For David my servant's sake ;" 
"Paul the Apostle's advice." In lengthy clauses it seems to 
be more agreeable to place the possessive in the most conspicu- 
ous place, which is the resting place, and it should be denoted 
also by the comma ; as, "Whose glory did he imitate?" "He 
imitated Caesar's ;" "These psalms are David's, the king, 
priest, and prophet of the Jewish people." 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 5. — Sometimes, to avoid the unpleasantness of the sound 
attending the possessive case, we make use of the preposition 
of to express the same relation ; instead of saying, "The 
General, in the army's name, published a declaration ;" "Un- 
less he is very ignorant of the republic's condition;" it would 
be better to say, "in the name of the army/' "ignorant of the 
condition of the republic," &c. 

We sometimes meet with three or more names, &c, depen- 
dent on one another, and connected by the preposition of 
applied to each of them ; as, "The severity of the distress of 
the son of the King, touched the nation ;" "Of some of the 
books of each of these classes of literature, a catalogue will be 
given at the end of the work." In the place of so frequent a 
use of the preposition of it were better to use the possessive 
case; thus: "The severe distress of the king's son, touched 
the nation ;" "A catalogue of some of the books pertaining 
to each of these classes of literature, will be given at the end 
of the work." In this latter sentence, no possessive is re- 
quired ; it were better in such cases to change the phraseology 
a little, in order to free it from so laborious a mode of expres- 
sion, which can sometimes be done without violence to the 
meaning, by uniting a word or two, and inserting others, to 
break the force of necessary repetition. 

Note 6. — In some cases, we use both the possessive termination 
and the preposition of; as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac New- 
ton's ;" and sometimes, indeed, unless we throw the sentence into 
a different form, this method is absolutely necessary, in order to 
distinguish the sense intended, and to give the idea of property 
possessed, which is the peculiar office of the possessive case ; for 
the expressions " This picture of my friend," and " This picture 
of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter repre- 
sents the picture as belonging to, or owned by, "my friend;" 
the former represents it as the likeness of "my friend :" it may 
belong to some other person. When this double-possessive is 
not necessary to distinguish the sense, it should not be used, as 
it seems not to be allowable, except to prevent ambiguity in 
cases which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the 
same kind; as, "A subject of the Emperor's;" "A sentiment 
of my brother's ;" in which more than one subject and more 
sentiments than one are supposed to belong to the possessor. 
But when the plurality is neither intimated, nor necessarily sup- 
posed, the double-possessive should not be used; as, "This 
house of the Governor is very commodious;" "That privilege 



SYNTAX RULE ELEVEN. 179 

of the scholar was never abused." Upon the whole, it is thought 
most proper to avoid the seemingly double-possessive altogether, 
and to give the sentiment another form of expression. 

Note 7. — When the entire clause of a sentence, beginning 
with a participle of the present time, (i. e., a present participle) , 
is used, as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, 
the noun on which it depends may be put in the possessive case ; 
as, "What is the reason of this person's dismissing his servant 
so hastily?" "I remember its being reckoned a great exploit;" 
"Much will depend on the pupil's composing , but more on his 
composing frequently ;" "I remember his father's being judge;' 7 
or, "I remember the circumstance of his father's being judge.' 9 
Let it be remembered, that the participial phrase in. such con- 
structions, does the office of a noun : it therefore should have 
a corresponding regimen. The phraseology of the above sen- 
tences may be so changed as to dispense with the possessive 
case ; but as they now stand, the possessive sign is required. 



Rule XL 

Active transitive verbs govern the Objective 
Case; as, "Truth ennobles her;" "She comforts 
me;" "They support us ;" " Virtue rewards her 
followers." 

Remark 1, — The nominative case or subject usually goes 
before the verb, and the noun or pronoun in the objective case 
usually comes after the verb ; as " Alexander conquered the 
Persians;" " John, strikes Charles. 5 ' But the pronoun, having 
a forrii peculiar to the case it occupies, is sometimes placed be- 
fore the verb, when it is in the objective case, and sometimes 
after the verb, when it is in the nominative case ; as, " Whom 
ye ignorantly worship, him declare 7" unto you." In this sen- 
tence, whom is in the objective case, governed by the verb wor- 
ship ; him is governed by the verb declare ; and /is nominative 
to the verb declare; that is, "I declare him unto you, ivhom ye 
ignorantly worship." In all such sentences, it is important to 
observe, First, What is the natural subject of the verb (which is 
the nominative) ; and Second, If the verb he transitive, what is 
the natural object of it; in which, and all things else, be guided 
by what the sense naturally requires. This is the all-important 
rule, and is as easy to be understood as any other rule. If you 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

will attend strictly to this one, you will have but little difficulty 
in understanding any of the rest. 

The relative pronoun whom (as well as others) often comes 
before the verb which governs it ; as, " He is the friend whom I 
love." Here, whom is in the objective case, governed by the 
verb love; and the reason why it comes before the verb, in this 
and similar sentences, is because it performs a double office in 
the sentence : First, as a pronoun, it represents the noun friend, 
furnishing an object for the transitive verb love; Second, as a 
conjunction, it connects the two sentences, forming them into 
one compound sentence. As you see it, it occupies the place of 
the conjunction ; as you think of it, it occupies the place of the 
objective after the verb love. Without its conjunctive influence, 
it would stand after the verb, thus: "He is the friend I love 
whom," which would surely be very awkward; besides, there 
is no word to connect the sentences, except this same relative 
whom, unless you change the relative into the personal pronoun, 
and introduce the conjunction and, which may be done, and the 
sentence stand thus: "He is the (or my) friend, and I love 
him," (instead of whom). See Questions and Answers on the 
Relative Pronoun, and Rule 17th. 

Remark 2. — Active intransitive verbs do not govern the ob- 
jective case ; therefore, when an objective case is found after an 
intransitive verb, you may be satisfied there is a governing 
word, either understood or expressed. It is important, there- 
fore, to form and practice the habit of supplying the ellipsis 
on all occasions when the sense or connection cannot be done 
by the words already expressed. As in the sentences, " He 
resided many years in that place;" that is, for ox during 
many years. "He rode a mile ;" i. e.for or through the space 
of a mile. "He lay an hour in great torture ;" i. e., for or 
during an hour. Such prepositions should be used as most 
naturally give the sense. 

In the phrases, " To dream a dream ;" " To dance the child;" 
"Tofy the kite ;" " To live a virtuous life ;" " To run a race;" 
"To walk the horse," the verbs certainly assume a transitive 
form, and govern their respective nouns in the objective case. 
See Enelage. 

Note 1.— Such phrases as "Repenting him of his design." 
" He found reason to repent him of his provoking such danger- 
ous enemies ;" " The popular lords did not fail to enlarge them- 
selves on the subject;" "The nearer his success approached 
him to the throne ;' " Qofee thee away into the land of Judea;" 



SYNTAX RULE ELEVEN. 181 

" They tried to agree the sacred with the profane chronology," 
<fec, are said to be in accordance with the French construction 
of reciprocal verbs ; but this custom is so foreign to the 
English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. 

Note 2. — Active transitive verbs are sometimes as impro- 
perly made intransitive, as in the above, the intransitive is made 
transitive; as, "I must /premise with three circumstances;" 
" Those that think to ingratiate with him, by calumniating me." 
These verbs are transitive, and require the objective case after 
them; thus, "I must premise three circumstances ;" "Those 
that think to ingraciate themselves with him," &c. There is 
neither beauty nor force in the use of prepositions to govern the 
proper objects of transitive verbs. It is not less than a fancied, 
whimsical, and foolish perversion of the simplicity of the lan- 
guage. Avoid it. 

Note 3. — The perfect participle of an active intransitive verb 
does not, when added to the neuter verb be, form & passive verb, 
although in its form it resembles the passive verb ; as, "I am 
come ; " "I was gone ; " "I am grown ; " "I was fallen. ' ' These 
are called " neuter verbs in passive form." They are allowable; 
but the following are erroneous, in giving active intransitive 
verbs a passive form instead of an active one; as, "The obli- 
gation of the law was ceased ;" "The number was amounted to 
three hundred ;" " The marshal was entered into a conspi- 
racy;" " The men are deserted, or killed." The verbs should 
be, "had ceased," "had amounted," "had entered," "had deser- 
ted, or have been killed." 

Note 4. — The verb to be, through all its variations, admits the 
same case after it as before it, either expressed or understood. 
That is, if the case immediately before this verb be either nomi- 
native, possessive, or objective, the case after it is the same ; be- 
cause the verb has no governing influence, and the noun or 
pronoun before it and after it, are in apposition ; i. e., they re- 
fer to the same thing ; as, "Jam he whom they invited." "It 
may be (or it might have been,) he, but it cannot be (or could 
not have been) I." "It is impossible to be they." "It seems 
to have been he who conducted himself so wisely." "It ap- 
peared to be she" "I understood it to be him." " I believed 
it to have been them." "We at first took it to be her ; but were 
afterward convinced it was not she." "He is not the person 
who it seemed he was." "He is really the person who he ap- 
peared to be." " She is not now the weman whom they repre- 
sented her to have been." " Whom do you fancy him to be?" 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" He desired to be their king" " They desired him to be their 
king." 

This verb will serve you as a guide, or a conductor to the 
cases. The two cases next before and after it must always be 
alike. 

The following sentences contain deviations from this rule, and 
exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case: il It might have been 
him, but there is no proof of it;" "Though I was blamed, it 
could not have been me ;" "I saw one who I took to be she;" 
"She is the person who I understood it to have been ;" " Who 
do you think me to be ?" " Whom do men say that I am ?" 
" Whom think ye that /am ?" 

The best method of discovering the proper case of the pro- 
noun in such phrases as the preceding, is, to change them into 
declarative expressions, and to substitute the antecedent for the 
pronoun, as the pronoun must be in the same case as the ante- 
cedent would be in, if substituted for it. Thus, the question, 
"Whom do men say that I am?" if turned into a declarative 
sentence with the antecedent, would be, "Men do say that I 
am he." Consequently the relative must be in the same case 
as he ; that is, the nominative who, and not whom. See inter- 
rogative pronoun, Q. and A. The verb to be is often understood 
after intransitive verbs; as, "He seems (to be) the leader of 
the party ;" "He shall continue (to be) steward.'' Also after 
transitive verbs ; as, "They appointed me (to be) executor ;" 
"I supposed him (to be) a man of learning." 

Passive verbs which signify naming, and others of a simi- 
lar nature, have the same case after them as before them ; as, 
"He was called Caesar;" "She was called Penelope;" "Homer 
is styled the prince of poets;" "James w&s created a duke ;" 
"The General was saluted Emperor;" "The professor was ap- 
pointed tutor to the prince ;" ''He caused himself to be pro- 
claimed King." In some of these and similar constructions, 
the preposition of seems to be understood after the verb ; as, 
* 'He was called (by the name of ) Caesar." Otherwise the nouns, 
&c, after these verbs are merely the subject-predicate of the 
verb to be, as in the former part of this note ; they are in appo- 
sition with the nouns, &c, before the verbs. 

The active intransitive verbs to go ; to return ; to expire ; to 
appear; to die; to live; to look; to grow; to seem; to roam; 
and others of a similar nature, often admit the same case after 
them as before them: — The reason seems to be, that the neuter 
verb to be, in some form, (expressed or understood,) is admitted 



SYNTAX RULE TWELVE. 183 

after many of this class of verbs, and serves as a conductor to 
the case of the following noun or pronoun; as, "This course 
made him appear [to be) an encourager of every virtue;" "She 
wanders {being) an outcast ;" "And Swift expires (being at the 
time of his death) a driv'ler and a show." In other sentences, 
in which the verb to be will not serve as & conductor to the cases 
seemingly in apposition, we may apply the 20th rule, consider- 
ing them as things in comparison, supplying the conjunction as, 
thus, ' 'She wanders as an outcast;" "Hortensius died as a 
martyr," "The gentle Sydney lived as the shepherd's friend." 
See rule 20th, the word as. When the cases of nouns and 
pronouns cannot be determined according to these directions, 
the phrases in which they stand may be considered as abridged 
propositions, the context considered, and then, by transposition, 
or supplying the necessary ellipsis, thrown into such forms as 
will subject them to the rules of syntax. When this cannot be 
done, the sentence or phrase is either in violation of rule, or 
anomalous : the only remedy for the latter has just been given: 
and the only remedy for the former is to expunge what is amiss, 
and insert, anew, what is right. 

In the cases above given, and all similar constructions, the 
nouns and pronouns, when they signify the same thing, the one 
merely describing or elucidating the other, are put by apposition 
in the same case. [See G. Brown on the conjuction as.] 

Note 5. — Some transitive verbs seem to govern two words 
in the objective case ; as, " The Author of my being formed me 
man." This is embraced in what is said under Note 4th, "form 
me (to be) man." No passive verb governs the objective case ; 
as, " They were asked a question ;" " They were offered a pardon ;" 
"He had been left a great estate by his father." They should 
read, "A question was put to them, and they were asked to 
answer it ;" (both of these seem to be included in the one above) 
"His father left (to) him a great estate;" "A pardon was 
offered (to) them." 

Eule XIL 

One verb governs another that follows it, or 
that depends upon it, in the Infinitive Mood ; as, 
" Cease to do evil ;" " Learn to do well ;" « We 
should be prepared to render an account of our 
actions ;" "I heard him say it.' 5 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






Remark 1 . — The governing influence of the verb, as intended 
to be shown by this rule, has reference to three particulars ; to 
wit: 

1st. When one verb follows another, as " Cease to do evil/ 
the verb cease has for its object the verb (in the infinitive 
mood) to do, with its object evil, — to do evil being considered a 
substantive phrase (equivalent to a thing, a noun), in the ob- 
jective case, governed by the verb cease, by Rule 11th, and 
Note 1st under Rule 1st; and the same in reference to "learn to 
do well," and others similar. 

2d. The verbs bid, dare, let, need, see, hear, feel, and 
others of similar import, however changed by mood, tense, 
&c, require the verbs* coming after them in the same sen- 
tence, to be in the infinitive mood, without the preposition 
to affixed, though it is understood, and belongs to the verb ; 
as, "Bid him come;" "Ye dare not do so;" "I see (or saw) 
him do so;" "I heard him say it;" "He need* not go," 
&c, i. e., to come, to do, to say, to go. This kind of govern- 
ment is that of the suppression of the preposition to, i. e., its 
being understood after this class of verbs. It does not extend 
to passive verbs ; for those above mentioned, and all others when 
in the passive voice, require the -to to be expressed with the 
verb; as, "He was seen to go;" "He was heard to speak ;" 
" They were bidden to be upon their guard," &c. 

3d. Verbs in general, except those referred to, as bid, dare, need, 
<fec, have an equal demand upon the infinitive following them, in 
requiring the preposition to to be expressed with the verb; as, 
"We should be prepared to render an account of our actions;" 
"I believe him to be honest;" in which they, if transitive, also 
take the infinitive with its object (if it have one) in the objective 
case, by.ISTote 1st to Rule 1st ; as "I expect to see him ;" " Boys 
love to play;" "They strive to learn;" "To be good, is to be 
happy ;" this latter one by Note 4th to Rule 1 1th. 

These three items amount to this — 

1st, Some verbs require the preposition to to be expressed 
with the verb; as, "I proposed to go." 

2d, Some verbs require the preposition to to be suppressed 
or understood; as, "They need not go;" i. e., to go. 

* Good usage authorizes the use of the plural form of the verbs need 
and dare, when intransitive, though their nominatives be in the singular 
number ; as, " He need not proceed in such haste ;" " He dare not refuse 
to go." But when these verbs are transitive, they are regularly inflected ; 
as, *•■ lie dares me to go f* " He needs my assistance ." 



SYNTAX RULE TWELVE. 185 

3d. And some verbs require the infinitive verb with its regi- 
men (if it have any) to take the construction of a noun in the ob- 
jective case, by Note 1st to Rule 1st ; as, " Boys love to play ;" 
* ' I love to see brothers and sisters pleasant and agreeable in their 
deportment to one another." 

Note 1 .—The infinitive mood is frequently governed by, or, 
more properly speaking, made to depend upon an adjective, a 
noun, or & participle ; as, " He is eager to learn ;" V They have a 
desire to improve ;" " I saw him endeavoring to persuade," &c. 

The infinitive mood sometimes follows the words than, and 
as, thus, "An object so high as to be invisible ;" "A question 
so obscure as to perplex the understanding ;" "He desired 
nothing more than to know his own imperfections." These 
come under the head of abridged propositions ; which see Index. 

Note 2. — The infinitive has much the nature of a noun in 
expressing the name of the action, &c, signified by itself, and 
it does the office of a noun in either the nominative, or the 
objective case ; as, in the nominative, (l To play is pleasant;" ob- 
jective, "Boys love to play" The infinitive is often made 
absolute, or used independent of the rest of the sentence ; as, 
"To confess the truth, I was in fault;" "To begin with the 
first ;" "To proceed ;" "To conclude ;" &c. These are abridged 
propositions, and not absolute and independent really, but made 
so by contraction or abridgment; for every verb must be referred 
to some noun or pronoun, &c, as subject or agent, for the 
simple reason that no action can take place without an agent to 
which the action must be referred ; and if we speak of being only, 
we speak of it in reference to something as the subject of being, &c, 
which may be shown by the full expression of the phrases 
given; as, "To confess," &c, i. e., "That I may confess the 
truth, I was in fault ;" or, "I should confess the truth, there- 
fore, I will do so by saying that I was in fault." And so, or 
similar, of the others. See abridged Propositions, Index. 

The preposition to, signifying in order to, was anciently pre- 
ceded by for; as, "What went ye out for to see?" i. e., in 
order to see ;" or "What thing was that to see which ye went 
out ?" The w r ord for before the infinitive is now nearly obso- 
lete. It is, however, still used, if the subject of the affirmation 
intervenes between that preposition and the verb ; as, "For holy 
persons to be humble, is as hard, as for a prince to submit 
himself to be guided by tutors." The true connection of for 
is shown in the transposition; thus, "To be humble, is as hard 
for holy persons, as to submit himself to be guided by tutors, is 
8* 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

hard for a prince." To be depends upon persons, as humble 
refers to persons : to submit depends upon prince ; to be guided 
depends upon himself: hard, in each sentence, is attributed to 
the subject of the verb in each sentence. 

Rule XIII. 

In the use of words and phrases which in point 
of time refer to each other, a due regard to that 
relation of time should be observed. Instead of 
saying "The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath 
taken away/ 5 we should say "The Lord gave, and 
the Lord hath taken away." Instead of saying, 
"I know the family more than twenty years/ 5 we 
should say, "I have known the family more than 
twenty years. 

Remark 1 . — To understand this rule, it is essential to under- 
stand well the distinctions of time denoted by the teases of the 
verbs ; and also in connection with this, to observe what the 
sense naturally requires. 

In the sentence above, the verbs hath given and hath taken, 
are both in the perfect tense, and, consequently, no distinction 
of time is made between the time of giving and the time of 
taking away ; which should be marked by the tenses of the 
verbs: Hath given, denotes past time, and also refers to the 
present time ; hath taken, is the same tense, denoting the same 
time ; so the giving and the taking away, so far as the tenses 
(or time) of the verbs are concerned, seem, by their improper 
use, to have occurred at the same time, or simultaneous ; which 
could not have been true : for the giving must have taken place 
before the taking away occurred. So, in the use of the verb in 
regard to the giving, we want the imperfect tense, as it refers to 
a point of time entirely in the past, without reference to any other 
point of time ; in the use of the verb in regard to the taking 
away, we want the perfect tense, as it stands ; for this tense em- 
braces both the past and the present, and alludes, to not only 
the time of the taking away, but also to the time, as present, at 
which the assertion was made, regarding the speaker as still in 
a state of destitution in reference to the thing once bestowed, and 
the act of taking away. 



SYNTAX RULE THIRTEEN. 107 

In the sentence, " I know the family more than twenty- 
years,' ' the verb know is in the present tense, and does not in- 
clude any portion of the twenty years, which must have been 
already passed when the sentence was uttered ; have (present,) 
known (past,) includes the entire time alluded to in the twenty 
years," and also to the time, as present, at which the sentence 
was spoken, representing the speaker as still being in posses- 
sion of the knowledge of the family. See Moods and Tenses, 
Q. and A. 

Note 1. — In order to express the past time with the verb 
ought, the perfect tense of the infinitive must always be used ; 
as, " He ought to have done so." Ought is here in the imperfect 
tense. This is the only possible way to distinguish the past or 
imperfect from the present tense of the verb ought. See Reca- 
pitulation of the Verb, Index ; also see directions for using the 
infinitive mood. 

In relating things that were formerly expressed by other 
persons, we often meet with modes of expression similar to the 
following : " Charles said that he is very unhappy." " The 
preacher said whatever was useful was good." 

In referring to declarations of this nature, the present tense 
must be used, if the position is immutibly the same at all times, 
or supposed to be so ; but if the position is liable to change, or 
supposed to be so, the imperfect tense must be used ; as, 
"Charles said that he was (not is,) very unhappy;" because 
this is liable to change. " The preacher said that whatever is 
useful is good," (not was,) because this is immutible, or not 
liable to change. 

This rule may not hold good in all cases, yet it is thought 
to be very generally useful. The time (or the tense,) of the 
verbs must be in accordance with what the sense requires. 
Study the tenses well, it is the only key to the thirteenth rule. 



Rule XIV. 

Participles have the same government as the 
verbs from which they are derived ; as, " I am 
weary with hearing him." " She is instructing 
us." 

Note 1. — The present participle, with the definite article 
the before it, takes the construction of a noun, and it must also 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

have the preposition of after it ; for in this instance it loses its 
participial influence, (remember it,) as, " These are the rules 
of Grammar, by the observing of which, you may avoid mis- 
takes." It would not be correct to say " by the observing 
which," for it cannot, as some other words, perform a double 
office ; so, in all cases, if it takes the regimen of a noun, it loses 
its participial influence ; and if it retains its regimen as a parti- 
ciple, it assumes none of those of the noun, (and remember this 
also). But the phrase without either the article or the prepo- 
sition, would be right ; as, "by observing which" In this last 
construction, the participle governs the relative pronoun which, 
by Rule 14th, and the preposition by governs both the participle 
and its object as one thing, (not the participle by itself, or the 
pronoun by itself, but both as a phrase, constituting the subse- 
quent term of relation,) by Rule 17th. The article a or an 
has the same effect ; as, " This was a betraying of the trust re- 
posed in him." 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle, 
and the preposition of follows it, will not in every instance 
convey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the parti- 
ciple without the article and preposition ; See these, " He ex- 
pressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher." 
" He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher." 
The former means whatever pleasure he had, he expressed in the 
hearing of the philosopher : i. e., he expressed it, and in the 
hearing of the philosopher, tells merely the place at which, or 
the circumstance under which it was expressed. The latter 
means whatever pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher, he 
expressed ; i. e., he did not conceal it ; in hearing the philoso- 
pher, tells whence, or from what source the pleasure was derived. 

First. In the hearing of the philosopher, is a compound ad- 
junct of the verb expressed, and qualifies it in the sense of an 
adverb of place ; as Where ? At what place ? Second, In hear- 
ing the philosopher, is a simple adjunct of the verb had, and 
qualifies it in the sense of an adverb of source or origin ; as, 
Whence? From what source? From this, you doubtless see the 
importance of a proper application and arrangement of the par- 
ticiple and preposition. 

Note 2. — The same observations which have been made re- 
specting the article and participle, appear to be applicable also to 
the pronoun and participle, as, "Much depends on their observ- 
ing of the rule, and error will be the consequence of their neglect- 



SYNTAX RULE FOURTEEN. 189 

ing of it," instead of "their observing the rule," and "their 
neglecting it. We shall perceive this more clearly, if we substi- 
tute a noun for the pronoun; as, "Much depends upon Tyro's 
observing of the rule," &c, winch is the same as "Much 
depends upon Tyro's observance of the rule." Taking the 
noun observance, instead of the participle observing, shows 
that the participle takes the construction of a noun, when 
preceded by the article or pronoun ; and to supply the govern- 
ing influence lost in the participle, the preposition of must follow 
in such cases. As good, however, if not a better mode of 
expression, would be, "Much depends on the rule's being 
observed," &c. See Note 7th to Rule 10th. 

Prepositions do not, like the article and pronoun, convert the 
participle into a noun ; the phrase "In forming of his sentences, 
he was very exact," is therefore incorrect. "From calling of 
names, he proceeded to blows," is also wrong. Either supply 
the article, or dismiss the preposition ; for it is virong without 
both, or right without either. In such instances, the preposition 
before the participle, has for its object, or subsequent term of 
relation, the entire phrase coming after it, which is called a par- 
ticipial phrase, taken as a noun in the objective case, by Rule 
1 7th. Sometimes a transitive verb precedes the participle ; as, 
"He studied to avoid expressing himself too freely ;" in which, 
and all similar phrases, the participial phrase, as the object of 
the verb, is governed by it, by Rule 11th. In such instances, 
the governing word is sometimes understood. 

The pupil will bear in mind, that the participle cannot, at the 
same time, perform the office of a noun in the objective case, 
and retain its governing influence as a participle. (See Note 
1st.) In the sentence, " He studied to avoid expressing himself 
too freely," the participle expressing governs the pronoun him- 
self, by Rule 14th; the verb to avoid has for its object, and 
governs the entire phrase, by Rule 11th ; whilst to avoid expressing 
himself too freely, is the object of the verb studied, by Rule 11th. 
governs the entire phrase, by Rule 1 1th ; whilst to avoid expressing 

If a noun in the possessive case precedes the participle, the 
effect is the same as that produced by the article or pronoun ; 
as, "Much depends upon Tyro's observing of the rule.' (See 
the former part of this note.) 

Note 3. — Care should be taken, that the perfect participle be 
not used instead of the" imperfect tense of the verb ; as, "He 
run," for "he ran ;" "he come," for "he came ;" "he begun," for 
"he began ;" "I seen," for "I saw," "I taken" for "I took ;" 
and also that the imperfect tense be not used instead of the per- 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

feet participle ; as, "I have took," for "I have taken ;" "I have 
saw" for "I have seen ; "I have went" for "I have gone" &c. 
To remedy this evil and inconsistency, study well the conjuga- 
tion of the verbs, especially the irregular verbs. 

When a noun is put absolutely, i. e., before a participle, having 
no verb to agree with it, it is said to be in the nominative case 
absolute ; as, "The painter being entirely confined to that part of 
time which he has chosen, the picture comprises but very few 
incidents. " Here the noun painter is placed before the participle 
being confined, and has no verb to agree with it ; pictured nomina- 
tive to comprises. But when the noun before a participle agrees 
with a following verb, it is not absolute ; as, "The painter, be- 
ing entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen, 
cannot exhibit various stages of the same action. " Here the 
noun painter, although placed before the participle being confined, 
is not absolute; it is in the nominative case to the verb can ex- 
hibit. In the former case, the noun depends upon the participle, 
and should not be separated from it by a comma ; in the latter, 
the noun does not depend upon the participle, and is, therefore, 
cut off from it by the comma. In the former, the participial 
phrase tells why the picture comprises but very few incidents ; 
and is an adverbial element. In the latter, the participial phrase 
tells why the painter cannot exhibit various stages of the same 
action ; and is also an adverbial element. "The painter's being 
entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen, de- 
prives him of the power of exhibiting various stages of the same 
action." In this construction, still a different modification 
occurs ; for all that precedes the verb deprives, is used to tell 
what it is that "deprives him [the painter,) of the power of ex- 
hibiting various stages of the same action," which jou may 
know by asking the question, What is that which deprives, &c. ? 
The answer to which will be, all and every word of that which 
precedes the verb deprives, as one complex subject ; being entirely 
confined to that pari of time which he has chosen, is the state of 
things belonging to, or possessed by the painter, and govern- 
ing it in the possessive case, by rule 10th ; which he has chosen, 
is a relative clause, and, as an adjective element, qualifies the 
noun part, or rather part of time ; so there is nothing left in 
the subject as nominative, but the entire clause that precedes 
the verb deprives. 

This kind of exercise may seem a little tedious, as well as a 
little out of place, under the 14th rule ; but, it is hoped, a little 



SYNTAX RULE FIFTEEN. 19.1 

careful study will make it right with the pupil ; if so, it is as 
right here as any other place. 

In the sentence, "What think you of my horse's running 
to-day ?" it is implied that the horse did actually run. If it 
be said', "What think you of my horse running to-day ?" it is 
intended to ask whether it be proper for the horse to run to- 
day. This distinction, though frequently disregarded, deserves 
attention ; for it is obvious, that ambiguity may arise from 
using the latter of these phraseologies to express both meanings. 

In the phrases, " Generally speaking ;" " Granting this to be 
true;" "Considering the frailty of human nature," &c, the 
participles are not absolute ; for it is self-evident that the ac- 
tions expressed by them must be referable to some agent, 
without which nonaction exists, and that a pronoun of some 
kind is understood, to which they refer; as, "We, generally 
speaking, say a man's conduct is very good ;" or, "We, speak- 
ing of his conduct in general, are constrained to say it was 
very honorable ;" "I, granting this to be true, am nevertheless 
bound to say," &c; "We, considering the frailty of human 
nature, are inclined to the side of lenity ;" or something of 
the kind appropriate to the occasion. 

The article the is often improperly put before the present 
participle ; as, "The advising/ 9 or "The attempting to excite 
such disturbances is unlawful f The taking from another what 
is his, without his knowledge or allowance, is called stealing;" 
"This style may be more properly called the talking upon 
paper." These sentences may be corrected by taking away 
the article. a \\ 

In some of these and similar sentences, the infinitive might 
be very properly adopted instead of the present participle ; as, 
"To advise; 99 or, "To attempt ; 99 "To take from another," <fec. 

Rule XV, 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, 
and sometimes other adverbs ; and therefore re- 
quire an appropriate situation in the sentence, in 
regard to the words they qualify ; for the most 
part before adjectives, after verbs, active or neuter; 
and frequently between the auxiliary and the 
principal verb ; as, " A very sensible discourse. 5 ' 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" He spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and he was 
attentively heard by the whole assembly." 

Remark 1 . — As no precise rule can be given for the placing 
of an adverb, care should be taken to observe what the sense 
necessarily requires. It is sometimes placed before the verb ; 
as tl Yice always creeps by degrees." Sometimes at a distance 
after it ; as, " They were encouraged to carry their operations 
still farther " 

Remark 2. — When adverbs are emphatical, they may in- 
troduce sentences, and thus be separated from the words 
which they qualify ; as, " How completely this most amiable of 
human virtues, had taken possession of his soul !" 

Remark 3. — The adverb there is often used as an expletive ; 
i. e., a word that serves to introduce the sentence, but adds 
nothing to the sense ; it precedes both the noun and the verb, 
and as a word of euphony, it gives us an easier and smoother 
mode of expression ; as, " There is a man at the door." 
" There are some thieves in the house." " There was a man 
sent from God, whose name was John." 

Note 1 . — The adverb never should not be used instead of 
ever; as, "Ask me never so much dowry and gift;" "If I 
make my hands never so clean." Ever would be more suita- 
ble to the sense, and agreeable to the ear. 

Ever is also sometimes mis-applied ; as, "I seldom or ever 
see him now." Never would be correct. 

Note 2. — The adverbs hence, whence, and thence, imply a 
preposition ; it is, therefore, improper to unite a preposition 
with them ; as, " From whence doth this union arise ?" Though 
the construction is improper, yet the omission of the preposi- 
tion would, when custom has sanctioned its use, seem stiff and 
disagreeable. 

Note 3. — The adverbs here, there, where, when, why, noiv, 
then, &c, stand for adjuncts; as, here means in this place; 
there means in that place ; where ? in what place, or in which 
place ; when ? in or at what time, or which time ; Why ? for 
what reason; Now, at this time, &c. See Adjuncts, Index, 
and Rule 17th. 

Rule XVL 

Two negatives destroy one another, or they are 
equivalent to an affirmative ; as, " Nor did they 



SYNTAX — RULE SIXTEEN. 193 

not perceive him ; i. e., they did perceive him. 
" His language, though inelegant, is not un gram- 
matical ;" i. e., it is grammatical. 

Remark 1. — This latter method of using the two negatives, 
is not incorrect ; it is so used because it forms a pleasing and 
delicate variety of expression. This cannot be said of all sen- 
tences in which two negatives occur ; for, as in the former of 
the two examples above, though they establish an affirmative, 
there is nothing either pleasing or harmonious about them ; in 
the following they are neither sensible nor sublime, to wit : 
"I never did repent of doing good, nor shall not now.''' " Ne- 
ver no man saw the like before." " Nor is danger ever ap- 
prehended in such a government, no more than we commonly 
apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes." They 
should be, "nor shall I now;" " no man ever saw;" "any 
more than we commonly," &{C. 

Rule XVII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, "I 
have heard a good character of her ;" "From him 
that is needy, turn not away ;" "A word to the 
wise is sufficient for them ;" "We may be good 
and happy without riches ." 

Remark 1 . — The prepositions to and for are often under- 
stood, chiefly before the pronouns ; as, "Give me the book;" 
i.e., tome; "Get me some paper;" i. e., for me; ''Woe is 
me/" i. e., to me. 

Note 1. — The preposition is often separated from the relative 
pronoun which it governs ; as, "Whom will ye give it to ?" 
"He is an author whom I am much delighted with;" "The 
world is too polite to shock authors with a truth, which gene- 
rally their booksellers are the first that inform them of." 
This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined, 
and suits very well with the familiar style in speaking and 
writing ; but the p'acing of the preposition before the relative, 
is more graceful, as well as more conspicuous, and agrees much 
better with the solemn and elevated style. 

As the preposition, in its connecting influence, is often mis- 
apprehended by the learner, I shall endeavor to make it a little 
more intelligible by inserting, in this place, a few items in 
9 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

addition to the observations already made in the Questions 
and Answers, on the Preposition, Relative Pronoun, Conjunc- 
tion, Adjuncts, and the system of Logical Parsing, Abridged 
Propositions, &c, which see. 

A preposition, taking a verb as its antecedent term of 
relation, is often placed before the verb; as, Interrogatively, 
"To whom did you give the book?" Declaratively: "He is 
the man to whom I gave the book;" that is, "I gave the book 
to him. 

Adjuncts of adverbial influence, assume a position in the 
sentence similar to that which an adverb of a similar import 
would occupy ; sometimes before the verb, sometimes after it, 
and sometimes between the auxiliary and the verb, and 
sometimes between the subject and the verb : 

1st. Before the verb, "In the beginning, God created the 
heavens and the earth f* "In interrogative sentences, the verb 
precedes the nominative case." 

" Convinc'd, in nature 9 s volume wise, 

The imag'd truth I read ; 
And sudden from my waking eyes 
Th' instructive vision fled"' 
2d. After the verb, " He left home at the hour of two, in 
the afternoon ;" " Come to me;" " Go away from me ;" " He 
went from London to York." 

3d. Between the auxiliary and the verb, " You can, in a 
moment of time, see into the nature and influence of these ad- 
juncts;" " Wilt thou, at this time, restore again the kingdom 
to Israel ?" 

" how shall words vnth equal warmth, 
The gratitude declare!" 

"When worn with sickness, oft hast thou, 
With health renewed my face." 
4th. Between the subject or nominative and the verb, "Pa- 
tience, by preserving composure within, resists the impression 
which trouble makes from without;" "Man, in his highest 
state of earthly glory, is but a reed floating on the stream of 
time, and forced to follow every new direction of the current;" 
"A Soul, without reflection, like a pile 
Without inhabitant, to ruin runs" 
" Even here is a season of rest, 
And I to my cabin repair " 



SYNTAX RULE SEVENTEEN. 195 

Note 2. — Some writers separate the preposition from the 
word which it governs, in order to connect different preposi- 
tions with the same word; as, "To suppose the zodiac and 
planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to themselves." This 
construction is always inelegant, and should generally be 
avoided. It is admissible in forms of law, &c, where fullness 
and exactness of expression must take place of every other 
consideration. 

Note 3. — Different relations, and different senses must be 
expressed by different prepositions, though in conjunction with 
the same verb or adjective, <fec. ; thus we say, " To converse 
with a person, upon a subject, ma house ;" or, 

!with a person, 
upon a subject, 
in a house." 

When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally 
the same that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns 
are derived ; as, "A compliance with," &c; " To comply 
with ;" "A disposition to tyranny;" " A disposition to ty- 
ranize," &c. 

Note 4. — The verb to found, when used literally, is more 
properly followed by the preposition on; as, " The house was 
founded on a rock." But in the metaphorical sense or ap- 
plication, it is often better to be followed by in; as, "They 
contend that dominion is founded in grace." To change the 
prepositions, the one for the other, would destroy the sense ; 
though there are, perhaps, cases in which either of them would 
be good. 

The preposition among generally implies a number of things, 
and is therefore improperly used in conjunction with the word 
every, which is in the singular number ; as, " Which is found 
among every species of liberty ;" " The opinion seems to gain 
ground among every body ;" " In every species ;" " With 
every body," &c. 

Note 5. — The preposition to is used before nouns of place, 
when the nouns follow verbs or participles of motion or action; 
as, "I went to Nashville;" " I am going to town ;" But the 
preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb be ; as, 
" I was at the place appointed." "I shall be at Paris." We 
likewise say, "He touched (was or arrived) at a place." 
The preposition in is used before countries, cities, and large 
towns ; as, " He lives in France, in America, or in New York." 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

But before villages, single houses , and cities, which are in dis- 
tant countries, at is used; as, " He lives at Hackney ;" " He 
resides at Montpelier ;" at Franklin; at Johnson's; at home/* 
&c, &c. 

It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pronouns 
one another, whether the preposition of be placed between them 
or before them ; We may say, they were jealous of one ano- 
ther ;" or, "They were jealous one of another ;" but perhaps 
the former is better adapted to the familiar style." 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions ; as, except- 
ing, respecting, touching, according, concerning. According 
requires the preposition to to complete it ; " according to pre- 
vious arrangement ; or, in accordance with," &c. 

IDIOMS AND ANOMALIES. 
In Grammar, the above terms are used to imply departure 
from rule; and it is said that expressions similar to those in 
the following examples, transcend the rules of Syntax, and 
consequently cannot be parsed by them. However this may 
be in the estimation of some, I am inclined to the belief, that 
these examples, and all others similar in their formation, can 
be properly analysed agreeably to the principles the rules of 
Etymology and Syntax are designed to teach. Phrases may 
occupy any position in a sentence, that a noun, an adjective, or 
an adverb may occupy ; and they should, when so situated in the 
sentence, be disposed of in accordance with the rule applying 
to a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, in a similar situation; 
because a phrase may become a subject, an object, or a modifier 
as strictly under the rules of Syntax, as single words may, and 
it is to be disposed of accordingly. 

Examples. 

1 . The wall is three feet high. 

2. His son is eight years old. 

3. My knife is worth a shilling. 

4. He has been here three times. 

5. The hat cost five dollars. 

6. The load weighs a ton. 

7. The spar measures ninety feet. 

In the first of these examples, three feet high, is an adjective 
phrase or element, predicated of the subject wall, and is dis- 
posed of as an adjective, by the 8th Rule of Syntax; is is the 
copula, and three feet high is the attribute; these two things form 



SYNTAX RULE EIGHTEEN. 197 

the predicate , whether the attribute, in any sentence, be a 
phrase, or a single word. 

The second example is similar to the first. 

In the third example, the word worth is a prepositional ad- 
jective y equivalent in meaning to the two words worthy of, an 
adjective and a preposition. (See page 116). Worthy of a 
shilling is also an adjective phrase, or element, predicated of 
the subject knife ; of a shilling, is an adjunct of the adjective 
worthy, and by its influence upon the antecedent term, it com- 
pletes the predicate. Worthy refers to knife, by Rule 8th. 

In the fourth example, three times is an adverbial phrase, or 
element, qualifying the verb has been, by Rule 1 5th ; or if we 
supply a suitable elipsis, and say on three occasions, or at three 
different times, we still have an adverbial element, for the ad- 
junct thus formed gives the same meaning as that given by 
the phrase ; because the sense requires an adverbial element to 
tell how often ; as once, twice, or thrice. 

In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the verbs cost, weighs, and 
measures, are transitive, and govern their respective objects in 
the objective case, by Rule 11th. 

Anomalies, being departures from rule, more properly apply 
to the irregular comparison of adjectives ; as, good, better, best ; 
bad, worse, worst ; little, less, least, &c. ; and to those nouns 
that do not form their plurals regularly in s, as man, men; 
woman, women ; child, children, &c. ; and also to those verbs that 
do not form their imperfect tense and perfect participles regularly 
in ed, as am, or be, was, been; write, wrote, written, &c, through- 
out the entire list of irregular verbs. 

Every word or phrase in a sentence is put there for some 
particular purpose, and involves one or more of the principles 
or elements of the ten parts of speech, and must be disposed 
of accordingly, by an appropriate Rule of Syntax. 



Rule XV III. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses 
of verbs, and the same cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns : as, " Candor is to be approved and prac- 
ticed" If thou sincerely desire, and earnestly 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pursue virtue, she will be found by thee, and 
prove a rich reward/' " He and she were school- 
fellows/' " The teacher taught both her and me 
to write." 

Remark 1 .—This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, 
which have the same bearing or relation with regard to the 
other parts of the sentence; for conjunctions are frequently 
made to connect different moods and tenses of verbs; but, it is 
important, when the sense is not otherwise obvious, to repeat 
the nominative, and to give a full expression of the verb, in 
sentences in which a change of mood or tense is required ; as, 
" He is at present temperate, though he was formerly the re- 
verse." "Can he perform the service? and will he perform 
it?" " They did all in their power to serve him, and most 
assuredly they should not be reproached for not doing more." 
"They have rewarded him liberally, and, indeed, they could not 
do otherwise." " She was once proud, but she is now hum- 
ble." In all instances wherein obscurity or vagueness might 
occur, it is proper to repeat the nominative and the verb after 
the conjunctions^ whether the verbs be of the same moods and 
tenses or not. It presents the sense more plainly to the reader, 
by rendering the latter clause less dependent on the former. 

Remark 2. — When, in the progress of a sentence, the cur- 
rent is interrupted, and we pass from the affirmative to the 
negative form, or from the negative to the affirmative, the re- 
petition of the nominative and the verb, is in most instances 
required ; especially if the expression be emphatic ; as, 
" Though I admire him greatly, yet I do not love him." "He 
is not in affluent circumstances, but still, he is eminently use- 
ful." Criticism may, indeed, be able to produce exceptions to 
the 18th Rule, yet it will be found useful, as a guide, in the 
analysis and construction of sentences ; the illustrations may, 
at least, serve to assist the pupil in determining, on many oc- 
casions, the propriety of repeating the nominative after the 
conjunction, and when it would be proper to omit it. Rules are 
not to be subverted, because they admit of a few exceptions. 
This is only intended as a guide; and if its importance, as 
such, be studied by the pupil, it will be found highly useful in 
conducting him to the moods and tenses of the verbs, as well 
as to the cases of nouns and pronouns in similar construction. 



SYNTAX RULE NINETEEN. 199 

Rule XIX. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, and 
some the subjunctive mood after them. It is a 
general rule that when something doubtful or con- 
tingent is implied, the subjunctive mood ought to 
be used ; as, " If I were to write, he would not 
regard it." " He will not be pardoned unless he 
repent." " Though he slay me, yet will I trust 
him. 5 ' 

But even these conjunctions, when the sentence 
does not imply doubt, require the indicative mood 
after them ; as, " Though he is poor, he is respec- 
ted." 

Note 1. — Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding 
them, necessarily require the subjunctive mood; as, "Love 
not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." "Reprove not a scorner, 
lest he hate thee." " Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob." 

If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires 
the conjunctive form of the verb; as, "If he do but touch the 
hills, they shall smoke." "If he be but discreet, he will suc- 
ceed." But if futurity is not denoted, the indicative form of 
the verb should be used ; as, "If, in this expression, he does 
but jest, no offence will be taken." "If she is but sincere, I 
am happy." 

As this rule is designed to illustrate the use and propriety 
of the subjunctive mood, it is deemed unnecessary to say more 
than what is merely sufficient to do so, without perplexing the 
mind of the pupil with criticisms, that tend rather to embarrass 
than to enlighten and encourage him in the pursuit of a science 
otherwise delightfully pleasing. 

Note 2. The subjunctive mood is used when we express an 
idea in connection with doubt (condition or contingency), suppo- 
sition, motive or wish; at the same time the conjunction im- 
plying either of these, may be expressed, or it may be under- 
stood. It is to be observed also, that the subjunctive mood has 
two forms ; one of which is called the conjunctive form, and the 
other, the indicative form : Thus, 

1st. Subjunctive mood, conjunctive form ; ' * If thou prosper, 
thou shouldst be thankful." H He will maintain his principles, 



200 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



though he loosehis estate." This form of the verb implies both 
doubt and future time, as may be seen by placing the auxiliary 
should before the verb, "If thou shouldst prosper/ ' &e„ and is, 
for this reason, by some called "the eliptical future;" itevidently 
gives the verb a future signification, and stands in connection 
with another verb in the future tense of the indicative mood, 
or in the present or imperfect tense of the potential mood, both 
of which imply future, as well as present or past time. See 
subjunctive mood. 

2d. Subjunctive mood, indicative form, " Unless he means 
what he says he is doubly faithless," » If he has money, he 
keeps it." "If thou hearcst, answer me." In these, and 
similar expressions, the verbs imply doubt only, without re- 
gard to future time ; and as doubt is one of the circumstances 
upon which this mood is founded, these verbs are as certainly 
in the subjunctive mood as any other verb can be. It is not 
the province of the indicative mood to imply doubt; this be- 
longs exclusively to the subjunctive mood." 

The verb To Be, in the subjunctive mood, has two forms in 
the imperfect tense, as well as two in the present tense— See 
its conjugation— " If I were;" "If thou wert ;" "If he 
were," &c; this is called the hypothetical form, and plainly 
implies no doubt at all; but that the fact supposed does not exist; 
as, "If I were he;" or "If I were in his place/' implies 
plainly that I am not in his place. It expresses, in the past 
tense, a supposition with respect to something present, and im- 
plies a denial of the thing supposed, or wished for ; as, " If I 
had the money now, I would pay the debt," implies, I have 
not the money. " ! (I wish) that thou toert as my brother," 
implies that thou art not as my brother. " I wish I were there 
now;" the wish, of course, implies the contrary of the thino- 
wished for. The indicative form is this, "If I was;" "If 
thou wast;" "If he was," &c; as, If I was in his company 
I did not recognize him ;" " If he was ill, he did not make it 
known." "Whether thou wast absent or present, is now a 
matter of no consequence." This form of the verb implied 
doubt with regard to past time, as denoted by the tense of the 
verb. 

The best general rule for the form of the verb in the present 
tense of the subjunctive mood, is the following : When the 
idea or notion ot doubt, <fec, attending the circumstance to be 
mentioned, is associated with future time, the verb should have 
the conjunctive form; to obtain this, it should be inflected after 



SYNTAX RULE NINETEEN. 201 

the auxiliary, shall or should ', understood ; as, " If I (should) 
be;" "If thou (shouldst) ride," &c. But when fixture time 
is not alluded to, the verb should have the indicative form ; 
as, "If I am;' ' "If thou ridest," &c. 

The rule for the imperfect tense of the subjunctive mood is 
this. When we alluded to past time regarding events as re- 
maining doubtful, the indicative form should be used ; as, "If I 
was, If thou wast; If he toas," &c. But when we indulge in 
supposition, wishing, &c, we plainly deny the existence of the 
thing supposed or wished for, and to show the denial, we must 
use the form of the verb adapted to that circumstance ; as, "If 
I were there, I would do so." This latter rule for the imperfect 
tense applies only to the verb Be; for all other verbs are conju- 
gated in the imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and first future temes, 
precisely as they are in the indicative mood, with the exception, 
that a conjunction implying doubt \ <fec, (expressed or under- 
stood), precedes the verb in the subjunctive mood, in conse- 
quence of which the meaning or sense is not identical with 
what it would be in the indicative mood. In the second future 
tense of this mood, shall is used with all the persons and num- 
bers. See second future tense, subjunctive mood. 

Note 3.— Some conjunctions have their corresponding con- 
junctions, so that in the subsequent member of the sentence, 
the latter conjunction answers to the former, as may be seen by 
examining the following list : 

1. Though — yet, nevertheless; as, "Though he was rich, yet 
(or nevertheless) for our sakes he became poor." 

2. Whether — or ; as, " Whether he will go or no, I cannot 
tell." 

3. Either — or; as, "I will either go or send some one." 

4. Neither — nor; as, "Neither thou nor I am to blame." 

5. As — as; (expressing a comparison of equality) as, "She 
is as amiable as her sister." 

6. As — so; (expressing a comparison of equality) as, "As 
the stars are, so shall thy seed be." 

7. As — so; (expressing comparison of quality) as, "As one 
dieth, so dieth the other." 

8. £o — as; (with a verb expressing comparison of quality) 
as, "To see thy glory so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 

9. So — as ; (with a negative, and an adjective expressing a 
comparison of quantity) as, "Pompey was not so great a man 
as Csesar." 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

10. So — that; (expressing a consequence) as, "He was so 
fatigued, that he could scarcely move." 

The word so often becomes an adverb. In No. 10 above, so 
qualifies fatigued ; in No. 9, so qualifies great ; in No. 8, so as 
is an adverbial conjunction, both taken together — if they be 
separated, so qualifies to see, and as is a conjunction ; in Nos. 
7 and 6, so is an adverbial conjunction. 

The word as is sometimes an adverb ; as in No. 5, as quali- 
fies amiable. The words so and as may be parsed either as 
adverbs or adverbial conjunctions ; for as words of comparison, 
they possess a qualifying influence, in common with adverbs, 
and also connect the sentences. The exceptions are few and 
easily perceived; as, "so great," "as amiable," &c. 

There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the 
conjunctive form of the verb; as, " Were there no difference, 
there would be no choice;" " Were I to do so, he would not 
forgive me ;" that is, " If I were to do so ;" " If there were no 
choice," &c. " Had he done this, he had not escaped;" for " If 
he had done this, he would not have escaped." 

Note 4. — It is proper to remark here, that there seems to be 
no necessity, in any case, to consider the word as in any other 
light than either that of a conjunction, or that of an adverb. 
Mr. Murray says : "It seems, when connected with the pronoun 
(adjective pronoun) such, to have the force of a relative pro- 
noun ; and that it is equivalent to them who; as, "Let such as 
presume to advise others, look well to their own conduct." 
It is admitted that our language is very eliptical at best, and 
that the ellipsis, when supplied, often renders a sentence H awk- 
ward" or "clumsy." I grant that it is even so; but this 
circumstance by no means does away with the necessity of sup- 
plying the necessary ellipsis ; for it is only by so doing that we 
can, at all times, show the grammatical construction, and render 
the language precise. In the sentence given above, as would 
be better resolved into those who, than them who ; for the de- 
monstrative is required, and not merely the objective them. But 
the word such, as well as the word as, implies comparison, and 
to show the comparison clearly, the ellipsis should be supplied in 
full, thus : " Let such (persons) as (those are, who) pretend to 
advise others, look well to their own conduct." The elipsis may 
be considered awkward, yet it is just; and the grammarian is 
not at fault for so rendering it. In the sentence above, the 
word as is a conjunction ; and as such, it is not wrested from 
its true signification and office. [See Rule 20th, and Notes.] 



SYNTAX RULE TWENTY. 203 

Rule XX. 

When the qualities of different things are com- 
pared, the latter noun, or pronoun, (in the com- 
parison,) is not governed by the conjunctions 
than or as ; but it agrees with a verb, or it is 
governed by a verb or preposition , either expressed 
or understood ; as, " Thou art wiser than I." That 
is, than J am. " They loved him more than 
me." That is, than they loved me. " They 
loved him better than I." That is, than I loved 
him. " He is as good as she." That is, as she is. 

Note 1. — By not attending to this rule, many errors have 
been committed ; as, " Thou art a much greater loses than me, 
by his death." " She suffers hourly more than me," &e. 
Me should be /, in both instances. 

Than and as being words of comparison, the things com- 
pared should be in similar cases, whether the words requiring 
these cases be expressed after the words of comparison, or not 
expressed. That is, the noun or pronoun after the conjunc- 
tion than or as, being in comparison with the noun or pronoun 
before the conjunction, should be in similar case with the noun 
or pronoun before the conjunction, as in the rule above. 

When the relative who> immediately follows than, it seems 
to form an exception to the 20th Rule ; for, in that connection, 
the relative must be in the objective case ; as, " Alfred, than 
whom, a greater king never reigned," &c. "Belzebub, than 
who?n t Satan excepted, none sat higher." 

It is remarkable, that in such instances, if the personal pro- 
noun were used, it would be in the nominative case ; as, " A 
greater king than he (was) never reigned." Belzebub than 
he. That is, u None sat higher than he (Belzebub) sat, except 
Satan. 7 * The phrase than whom is avoided by the best modern 
writers. In poetry it seems to be allowable. 

Some grammarians suppose that the words than and but are 
sometimes used as prepositions, and consequer-tly govern 
nouns and pronouns in the objective case. They adopt this 
idea from the difficulty, if not impossibility, as they conceive 
of supplying the ellipsis on any other principle. The plea of 
necessity seems, however, to be groundless. The principle 
of supplying the ellipsis is, we think, sufficient to resolve every 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

case in which than or but occurs without wresting these words 
from their true nature, and giving them the character of pre- 
positions ; the same may be said of the conjunction as. In the 
preceding we have exhibited only a few examples, showing 
that the supplying of the ellipsis sufficiently explains their con- 
struction ; but as these may be deemed obvious cases, we shall 
select some which appear to be more difficult in their develop- 
ment. To wit: "I saw nobody but him." " No person but 
he was present.' ' " More persons than they saw the action." 
4 1 The secret was communicated to more men than him" 
" This trade enriched some people more than them" All 
these, and similar sentences, may be explained on the principle 
of supplying the ellipsis; thus : In the first example, " I saw 
nobody but him" If it be said that but, in this instance, 
means except , and that except is a preposition, we reply, that, 
except has, in a greater degree, the sense of a verb or partici- 
ple, than that of a preposition ; as, " I saw nobody but (I ex- 
cept) him ;" or, " I saw nobody excepting him ;" or, "1 saw 
nobody excepting that I saw him ;" the latter of these seems 
to be the true construction; for the meaning evidently is, "I 
saw him," which entire clause is the thing that I evidently in- 
tended to except. In the second example, "No person but he 
was present," except might be used with the same plausibility 
as in the preceding sentence, and the same arguments ad- 
vanced against its construction as a preposition ; for the mean- 
ing is, " he was present ;" yet the word except would, as a 
preposition, require he to be him, objective, and not nomina- 
tive. In the third, "more persons than they saw the action ; 
than, as a preposition, would convert they into them, and 
thereby destroy the comparison indicated by more and than, 
for, to carry it out, the pronoun they is evidently in the nomi- 
native case to the verb are, understood; thus, " More persons 
than they [are in number,) saw the action." In the fourth, 
f* The secret was communicated to more men than Mm," the 
preposition to before more, shows what governing word should 
follow than; " to more men than to him" which also shows 
than not to be a preposition, but a conjunction. The sentence 
would be better thus, " The secret was communicated to other 
persons besides to him," or, to others, as well as to him;" i. 
e., " it was communicated to him" In the fifth, " This trade 
enriched some persons more than them," the meaning is, it en- 
riched some other persons more than it enriched them ; per- 
sons and them being in comparison by more and than, are in 



SYNTAX RULE TWENTY. 205 

similar cases, governed by words of similar purport ; which 
circumstance it would be well for the pupil to observe as a rule, 
till he can find a better one. The supplying of the ellipsis in 
such cases, may give the sentence an uncouth appearance, but 
this circumstance is no solid objection to the truth of the princi- 
ple for which we contend ; to wit : The true and grammatical 
construction. 

It is said that " most of the idioms of a language could not 
be literally accounted for, but by very awkward modes of ex- 
pression." This being the case with other languages, it would 
be strange were it less so in some few instances, in the English 
language. 

If the principle of supplying the ellipsis effectually answers 
the purpose of ascertaining the cases of nouns and pronouns, 
&c, in connection with the words as, than, and but, why 
should we have recourse to the useless expedient of changing 
them into other parts of speech ; especially when the expe- 
dient would often produce ambiguity, and lead into error, as 
may be seen by the following, " I love her better than him," 
whether it be meant "I love her better than I love him/ 9 or 
" I love her better than he loves her," is not so clearly known, 
unless we adopt the one uniform rule in regard to the word 
than ; if it is a preposition in one case, it is equally so in the 
other; if it is a conjunction in one case, it is so, also, in the 
other ; and that it is a conjunction in both, needs only to be 
shown by supplying the necessary ellipsis. Perhaps its nature 
is better shown by the use of the pronoun you ; as, " I love 
her better than you;" in this instance it is impossible to tell 
what is meant, unless we give than the construction of a con- 
junction ; this obviates all difficulty ; and, by using it uniform- 
ly as a conjunction, the ambiguity, and consequent uncertainty 
of meaning in all similar sentences is obviated. The words of 
comparison require that the things compared be similarly situ- 
ated in regard to case. 

If it should be said that but and than may be properly sup- 
plied by except and besides, as prepositions, and therefore the 
substitution of the latter for the former is allowable, we reply, 
that, in numerous instances these words cannot be properly 
substituted. But if this could be universally done, it might 
still be objected that equivalence of meaning by no means im- 
plies identity of grammatical construction; and therefore it is 
wrong to wrest any word from its etymological signification. 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" It may be laid down as a rule," says Mr. L. Murray, "that 
when the pronoun following but or than has exactly the same 
bearing and relation as the preceding noun or pronoun has, with 
regard to other parts of the sentence, it must have the same 
grammatical construction ;" and that the 18th Rule of Syntax 
may be considered as subsidiary to the preceding rule, and to 
the principle of supplying the ellipsis ; thus, in the expression, " I 
saw nobody but him," nobody is in the objective case, governed 
by the verb saw ; and him is in the same case, governed by saw 
understood, according to Rule 1 8th, in reference to cases. In 
the phrase, "No person but he was present," person is nomina- 
tive to was, expressed, and he is nominative to was, understood. 
[See Rule 3, Notes 1 and 2.] The same may be said of than 
and as; for in these, the words and ideas of comparison should 
be kept steadily in the mind, for the comparison being made in 
the mind, the elliptical words required to carry out and fully 
make the comparison, should be supplied in parsing, according 
to Rule 20th. 

It is admitted that the 18th Rule (which serves somewhat to 
illustrate a principle of the 20th) will not hold good in all cases ; 
but .when it fails to connect the same cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns, or verbs of the same mood and tense, in sentences and 
phrases in which obscurity or uncertainty of meaning is liable to 
occur, the following rule should be observed : If the verb, noun 
or pronoun, coming after the conjunction, require a construction 
differing from that going before the conjunction, the mood or 
tense, or governing word, required in the change, should be fully 
expressed after the conjunction, or the phraseology of the sen- 
tence must be so arranged or modified as to relieve it of such 
words and form as would obscure the sense. 

Rule XXL 

To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to ex- 
press our ideas in a few words, an ellipsis, or 
omission of some words, is frequently admitted. 
Instead of saying, " He was a learned man, and he 
was a wise man, and he was a good man/' we 
make use of the ellipsis, and say, " He was a 
a learned, wise and good man." Observe the 
ellipsis. 



SYNTAX RULE TWENTY-ONE. 207 

When the omission of words would obscure the 
sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with 
an impropriety, they should be expressed ; as, 
" We are apt to love who love us." The word 
them or those should be supplied. "A beautiful 
field and trees" is not proper language ; it should 
be " Beautiful fields and trees," or, " A beautiful 
field and fine trees." 

ELLIPSES. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical ; 
some examples of which may be seen under the different parts 
of speech, as follows : 

1. Noun. 

The ellipsis of the noun is thus used : " The laws of God and 
man," for " The laws of God and the laws of man." In some 
very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not be used ; as, 
"Christ, the power of God, and the wisdom of God," which is 
more emphatical than " Christ, the power and wisdom of God." 

2. Article. 

The ellipsis of the article. "A man, woman and child," for 
" A man, a woman and a child. " In such sentences, the article 
being once expressed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary ; 
except, however, when some peculiar emphasis is required ; as, 
"Not only the year, but the day and the hour," &c. Also, 
when a different form of the article is requisite, it is proper to 
repeat it; as, "A house and an orchard." 

3. Adjective. 

The ellipsis of the adjective ; as, "A delightful garden and 
orchard," for, " A delightful garden and a delightful orchard." 
The adjective should not be omitted, except in cases in which 
it will apply equally to each noun expressed, as above. "A 
little man and woman," implies that both were little. 

4. Pronoun. 

The ellipsis of the pronoun. Emphasis seems to require the 
repetition of this word, hence the ellipsis of the pronoun is not so 
frequent as with many other words; as, " / love him and /fear 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

him," for, "I love and fear him' 9 " This is the man they 
love/' for, " This is the man whom they love/ ' The antece- 
dent and the relative connect the parts of a compound sen- 
tence, and to prevent obscurity of meaning, and to preserve 
the concord or harmony of the sentence, they should answer 
to each other with great exactness; as, "We speak that we 
do know, and testify that we have seen;" supplied thus: 
"We speak that which we do know, and testify that which we 
have seen." 

5. Verb. 

The ellipsis of the verb. "The man was old and crafty," for, 
" The man was old, and he was crafty." " Thou art poor, and 
wretched, and miserable, and blind, and naked." If we would 
fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, " thou art" ought to be 
repeated before each of the adjectives. If, in such enumera- 
tion, we choose to point out one property above the rest, that 
property must be placed last, and the ellipsis supplied ; as, 
" She is young and beautiful, and she is good." 

"I went to see and hear him," for, "1 went to see him, and 
I went to hear him." In this instance, there is not only an 
ellipsis of the governing verb went, but also of the pronoun I 
and the sign of the infinitive mood which is governed by it. 

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, &c, and the auxi- 
liaries of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone to 
spare the repetition of the verb ; as, " He regards his word, but 
thou dost not;" i. e. "thou dost not regard it." "I have 
learned my task, but you have not ;" i. e., " You have not 
learned yours" The auxiliary verbs are often properly omitted 
before the principal verb; as, "I have seen and heard him 
frequently;" i. e. "have seen and have heard." But when 
any thing is emphatically expressed, or when opposition is de- 
noted, this ellipsis should be avoided ; as, " I have seen him, 
and I have heard him too." "He was admired, but he was 
not beloved." 

6. Participle. 

The ellipsis of the participle. " Conscious of his own weight 
and importance, the aid of others was not solicited." Here 
he and being are both understood before " conscious," which 
clause constitutes the nominative case absolute, " The Puritans, 
persecuted and oppressed, sought a home in the new world;" 
being persecuted, and being oppressed, &c. " All things ready, 



SYNTAX RULE TWENTY-ONE. 209 

we started." "All things having been made ready;" or, 
" All things being ready, we started." 

7. Adverb. 

The ellipsis of the adverb. " He spoke and acted wisely, " 
for, " He spoke wisely and he acted wisely " " Thrice I went 
and offered my service/* for, " Thrice I went, and thrice I 
offered," <fcc. Thirdly and lastly , means in the third and last 
place, or finally. Similar phrases take a similar construction. 
See Rule 3d, Kote 2. 

8. Preposition. 

The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb and pro- 
noun. "He went into the abbeys, halls, and public buildings ;" 
that is, " He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he 
went into the public buildings ;" " He also went through all the 
streets and lanes of the city ;" " Through all the streets and 
through all the lanes." "This day," "next month," "last 
year ;" that is, "on this day," "in the next month," '* inthe 
last year." "The Lord do that which seemeth him good ;" 
that is, "which seemeth to him." 

9. Conjunction. 

The ellipsis of the conjunction ; as, " They confess the 
power, wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator." That 
is, " The power, and the wisdom, and the goodness, and the 
love of their Creator." 

There is a very common ellipsis of the conjunction that; as, 
" He told me he would proceed immediately ;" " I desired he 
would not be too hasty." Supply that between me and he, and 
also t hat between desired and he. This ellipsis is allowable in 
conversation and in letter writing, but it should be sparingly 
used in every other species of composition. 

10. Interjection. 

The ellipsis of the interjection; as "O! pity and shame." 
That is, "0, pity! and shame!" 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence inthe English 
language, numerous examples might be given ; but only a few 
more will be admitted here, as a knowledge of the require- 
ments of Etymology and Syntax, as illustrated under the 
rules, <kc, will enable the attentive learner to perceive, from 



£10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

their offices, the merit and value of words, and consequently 
what is required to complete the connection of words in a sen- 
tence ; by which knowledge alone, will he be able, at all times, 
to supply the ellipsis, with facility, and which, it may be said, 
is the happiest art in the analysis of the language. 

Sometimes a considerable part of a sentence is properly 
omitted, when we presume that the nominative case and its 
entire regimen maybe readily understood; as, "Nature has 
given to animals one time to act, and another to rest." That 
is, "Nature has given to animals, one time to act, and nature 
has given to animals, another time to rest." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the 
ellipsis. The parentheses include the ellipsis; as, "Woe is (to) 
me." " To let (out) blood ,*" out, in this place, is not & prepo- 
sition, but an adverb ; blood is governed by let ; it is a contrac- 
tion for, " To let blood to flow out, or to come out. Out of, 
would make it a compound preposition, requiring a subsequent 
term of relation after it. " To let (it to fall or slide) down;" 
" To walk (through or during) all (the) night." " To go a 
fishing," that is, on a fishing voyage, or on the business of fish- 
ing. " To go a hunting ;" on a hunting tour or excursion. 
See Abridged Propositions, Index. "I dine at 2 o'clock" 
(of the clock). "By (the) sea;" "By (the) land;" "On 
(the) shore." 

In the use of the word notwithstanding, we have a striking 
proof of the value of abbreviations in language. For exam- 
ple, Moses said, " Let no man leave of it till the morning ; not- 
withstanding, they hearkened not unto him." Here notioith- 
standing appears without the clause to which it belongs, and 
to complete the sense in words, it would be necessary to repeat 
the whole of the preceding clause, or the substance of it; as, 
*' Notwithstanding this commandment of Moses," or, "notwith- 
standing Moses had said, f Let no man leave of it till the morn- 
ing,' they hearkened not unto him." 

" Folly meets with success in this world ; but it is true, not- 
withstanding, that it labors under disadvantages." This pas- 
sage, at length, would read thus : " Folly meets with success in 
the world, but it is true, notwithstanding folly meets with success 
in the world, that it labors under disadvantages." 

It is not unfrequent that the pronoun this, that, which or what, 
is made to represent nearly the whole of a sentence ; as, " Bodies 
which have no taste, and no power to affect the skin, may, not- 



SYNTAX — -RULE TWENTY- TWO. 211 

withstanding this, act upon organs which are more delicate/' 
Here this stands for "they have no taste" and "they have no 
power to affect the skin.'* 

Mgp Be not too easily satisfied with a superficial observance 
of the component parts of a sentence, but examine well the entire 
chain of connection, dependence, construction, &c. [See Rule 
22.] 

Rule XXII. 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond 
to each other: a regular and dependent construc- 
tion, throughout, should be carefully preserved. 
The following sentence is inaccurate: a He was 
more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cin- 
thio" It should be, " He was more beloved than 
Cinthio, but not so much admired." 

The example given in this rule, presents a most irregular 
construction, namely, "He was more beloved as Cinthio. ,, The 
words more and so much are very improperly stated as having 
the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not neces- 
sary to supply the latter ellipsis of the corrected sentence, by 
saying, "but not so much admired as Cinthio was;" because 
the ellipsis, after " Cinthio" cannot lead to any discordant or 
improper construction ; and the supply of the omitted words 
would often be harsh or inelegant. But in all cases where the 
meaning is liable to be perverted, there should be no omission 
of words necessary to the full construction. [See Rule 20.] 

This 22d Rule comprehends all the preceding Rules, and may, 
in itself, be too general to be appreciated by the pupil ; but if 
he will consider it as embracing the two grand divisions of 
Syntax — Concord and Government, — and if he will carefully 
review the preceding Rules, Notes, &c, with reference to these 
two principles, he will, more than probably, be soon led to see 
the force and meaning of what is intended by the 22d Rule, 
in the doing of which, he will also observe, that in some in- 
stances, one Rule has a tendency to illustrate another, &c. He 
should keep strictly in mind what is meant by Concord, and 
what by Government; to illustrate which, to some extent, the 
pupil will observe, that — 



212 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rule 1 Treats of Agreement, or Concord. 

« 2 » of Concord, f f , Rules *• 2 ' 3 /"jj 4 > tr ^ at * 

« 3 « of Concord. \ $ e »£*«"«** f th f ™* ™ * 

« 4 « of Concord, j 1 ^ 6 ^ 2 3 and 4 are only 

^ modifications of Rule 1 . 

'* 5 " of Concord. The pronoun represents the noun. 

" 6 Is a guide to the cases of the relative pronoun. 

" 7 Treats of Concord. The relative pronoun may agree 
with either, <fec. 

" 8 Treats of Concord. The adjective, second clause. 

" 9 " of Concord. The article. 

"10 " of Government. The possessive case. 

"11 " of Government. The objective case. 

" 12 " of Government. Of the infinitive mood. 

" 13 " of Concord. Of relations of time, or tenses. 

"14 " of Government. Of the participle, obj. case. 

"15 " of Concord. Of the situations of adverbs. 

" 16 " of Concord. Of negatives. 

"17 " of Government. Of the preposition, obj. case. 

"18 " of Concord. Of moods, and tenses, and cases. 

"19 " of Government. Subjunctive mood. 

"20 " of Concord. Things in comparison. 

" 21 " of Concord. Ellipsis. 

"22 " of Concord. This comprehends all the Rules 
and Notes. 

The Notes illustrate the seeming exceptions to the foregoing 
Rules. Note 1st under Rule 1st, and Note 4th under Rule 
11th, are the most important of the Notes. All the Notes, Re- 
marks, &c, should be carefully inquired into by the pupil. 
The seeming incongruities will give place to harmony, when the 
Rules and Notes are properly understood. 



THE INTERJECTION. 

The Syntax of the Interjection is of so very limited a nature 
that it does not require a distinct or separate rule. It has al- 
ready been sufficiently noticed in its place, as one of the ten 
parts of speech. See Q. and A. 

It may not, however, be improper to observe, in addition to 
the foregoing, that the genuine interjection, which is always 
expressive of some strong sensation, does not owe its characte- 
ristic expression to the arbitrary forms of articulation ; but it 
derives its force from the tone of the voice, and the modified- 



SYNTAX APPLICATION OF RULES. 213 

Hon of the countenance, and gesture, -which are equally expres- 
sive of meaning, though in general, too strong for utterance, 
if not, in their nature, unknown to language, either as written 
or spoken ; and for this reason it has no syntactical connection 
with other words in the language, nor can it have any. 

As has been shown in the Questions and Answers, the inter- 
jection requires no particular case to follow it ; this require- 
ment will be found to belong to something in the ellipsis to be 
supplied, which, when supplied, will disclose words of require- 
ment sufficient to relieve the interjection from an office which it 
is in no way calculated to perform. 

APLICATION OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

As it is important to the private learner to know hoiv and 
when to apply the rules of Syntax, I have thought proper to 
subjoin the following, in addition to the illustrations above 
given. For the learner to know, at all times, and on all 
necessary occasions, what rule to apply, is not an easy matter. 
The following, therefore, if carefully studied in reference to 
this, will be found an invaluable aid. 

The rules necessary to be applied in parsing are ; 1, (2, 3, 
4), 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, and Note 1. 
Under rule 1, and Note 4, under rule 11. They are applied 
as follows : 

Rule 1. Is applied when we parse a finite verb, to show its 
agreement with its subject, or nominative case. 

Rule 2. Is applied when there are two or more nouns or 
pronouns of the singular number, connected by copulative con- 
junctions, and put in the nominative to the same verb. 

Rule 3. Is applied when two or more nouns, or pronouns 
of the singular number, being nominatives, are connected 
by disjunctive conjunctions, one of which is nominative to 
the verb expressed, and each of the others nominative to similar 
verbs understood. 

Rule 4. Is applied when a noun of multitude is shown to 
have & plural or a singular signification, having a verb or a 
pronoun, agreeing with it accordingly. 

Rule 5. Is applied when a pronoun is shown to agree with 
the noun which it represents. 

Rule 6. Is applied when we show the case of a relative pro- 
noun, by 1st or 2d clause. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule 8. Is applied when we show the noun pointed out and 
qualified by the adjective, by 1st or 2d clause. 

Mule 9. Is applied when we show the noun pointed out and 
restricted by the article, by 1st or 2d clause. 

Rule 10. Is applied when we show the noun by which 
another noun or pronoun, is governed in the possessive case. 

Rule 11. Is applied when we show the objective case of a 
noun or pronoun governed by an active transitive verb. 

Rule 12. Is applied when we show the verb which governs 
another verb in the infinitive mood. 

Rule 14. Is applied when we show the objective case of a 
noun or pronoun, governed by the participle. 

Rule 15. Is applied when, in parsing an adverb, we show the 
verb, participle, adjective or adverb, that is qualified by the ad- 
verb. 

Rule 1 7. Is applied when we show the objective case of a 
noun or a pronoun , governed by a preposition. 

Rule 18. Is applied when the same moods and tenses of 
verbs, or the same cases of nouns and pronouns are con- 
nected by a conjunction. 

Rule 19. Is applied when we show a conjunction requiring 
the subjunctive mood after it. 

Rule £0. Is applied when we show the verb in agreement 
with the subject, or the governing word after the conjunction 
than or as, (or but.) 

Note 1. under Rule 1. Is applied when we show that the 
infinitive mood (that is a verb in this mood) is either 
the subject of a verb, as its nominative, or when it is in the 
objective case, governed by an active transitive verb. 

Note 4. under Rule 1 1 . Is applied when we show the case of 
a noun or pronoun after the verb to be, in apposition with a 
noun or pronoun before the verb to be, or its participle being, 
which is only a variation of the verb to be. 

The other rules and notes sre subsidiary to the foregoing ; 
though not strictly necessary to be applied in parsing, they 
should be well and carefully studied, so that the pupil may 
not be at a loss about the dependence and disposition of any 
word. 

As a further guide to the uses and application of the rules, 
I mil also illustrate the design, &c, of those omitted in 
the foregoing. 

Rule 7. Shows that, when the relative pronoun is made to 
agree in person (as by rule 5), with either of two antecedents, 



SYNTAX DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 215. 

the same order of agreement must be observed throughout the 
sentence, or paragraph. 

Rule 13. Is designed to prompt us in regard to the proper 
distinctions of time, by the tenses of verbs relating to each 
other. 

Rule 16. Shows the impropriety of using two negatives in 
such connection as that in which one would destroy the force 
and meaning of the other ; unless, as is allowable in some in- 
stances we wish, by a pleasing variety of expression, to es- 
tablish an affirmative, by a double negative. 

Rule 21. Is designed to instruct us in the moderate use of 
the ellipsis ; so as not to render our expressions clumsy and 
awkward by using more words than are necessary to complete 
the sense intelligibly ; nor yet by using so few as to obscure the 
idea we intend to convey. 

Rule 22. Is designed to throw us back, so to speak, to the 
consideration of the observations already made in the rules 
and notes, in regard to the two divisions of Syntax, Concord 
and Government, that we may obtain clear conceptions of 
these two principles as carried out and illustrated by the rules 
and notes. 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE FOLLOWING EXERCISES 
IN PARSING. 

The following exercises in parsing are designed to lead the 
pupil gently on from the simplest forms of expression, to the 
most complex and difficult. It is desired, therefore, that the 
learner will parse the first lesson several times over, before he 
proceeds to those which come after ; and that he will parse 
each lesson at least twice before he advances to the next ; as 
this process will prepare him for exercises requiring greater 
skill, as well as a greater amount of mental effort. 

It is particularly essential to the permanency of what is 
learned, for the pupil to give the reason for everything he 
says in regard to the etymology of the word which he is par- 
sing, and to apply the rule in every instance wherein a rule is 
necessary; first telling the number of the rule, and then re- 
peating the rule, word for word. This will, in a short time, 
render every thing pertaining to the analysis, so perfectly fa- 
miliar, and at the same time impress the whole matter so in- 
delibly upon the mind, that an ordinary lifetime will not obli- 
terate it from the memory. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The figures over the words denote the parts of speech; 
when two figures are over the same word, the first, or left 
hand figure, denotes the class to which the word primarily be- 
longs ; the other, or right hand figure, denotes the part of 
speech for which it is now taken and parsed ; as, an adjective 
taken as a noun. Two figures connected by the character <fc, 
denote the word, over which they are placed, to be a word of 
two-fold meaning, and that it performs a two-fold, or double 
office in the sentence, and must be disposed of agreeably to its 
nature. 

The preposition to, immediately before the verb, is the sign 
of the infinitive mood, and is disposed of as a part of the verb. 

The figures in the line denote the rules of Syntax applied 
respectively in the disposal of those words immediately after 
which the figures severally stand. 

For further guides, see occasional notes. The following il- 
lustration is designed to teach you the order to be observed in 
parsing : 

Example. 

2 6.3 1 5 1 9 1 

The 9 contented 8 mind 1 spreads 1 ease 11 and 18 cheerful- 

8 4 

ness 1 1 around it. 1 7 

2 

The 9 is the definite article, (here define it); it points out the 
noun mind, with which it agrees, according to the 9th rule, 
(2d clause,) which says, &c, (here repeat the rule). 

6 3 

Contented 3 is a participial adjective, derived from the verb 
to content ; (here define it, compare it> and tell its degree of 
comparison) ; it belongs to the noun mind, according to the 
8th rule, which says, &c, (here repeat the rule). 

Mind 1 is a noun, (define it). 

1. It is a common noun because it is a common name. 

2. It is of the neuter gender, because it implies a thing with- 
out sex. 

3. It is of the third person, because it is spoken of. 

4. It is of the singular number, because it implies but one; 
and 

5. It is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of 
the verb spreads, according to the 1st rule, (2d clause,) which 
says, &c, (here repeat the 2d clause of rule 1st). 



SYNTAX DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 217 

5 

Spreads 1 is a verb, (define a verb); this signifies to do, and 
is called active because it expresses action. 

1. It is transitive, because it (the action) passes from its 
nominative mind, to its objects ease and cheerfulness. 

2. It is irregular, because it will not form, &c, (tell the 
reason,) present tense spread, imperfect tense spread, perfect 
or passive participle spread. 

3. It is in the indicative mood, because it is used for indica- 
ting or declaring. 

4. It is in the present tense, because it denotes present 
time ; and 

5. It is of the third person, and the singular number, because, 
its nominative mind is so, with which it agrees, according to 
the 1st clause of Rule 1st, which says, &c, (repeat the 1st 
clause of rule 1st.) 

l 

Ease 1 1 is a noun, (define it, and observe the same order as 
to its etymology, as with the noun mind, above) ; and 

It is in the objective case, governed by the active transi- 
tive verb spreads, according to rule 1 1th, which says, &c, 
(repeat the rule.) 

9 

And 1 8 is a copulative conjunction ; (define it,) in this place 
it connects words only ; according to the 1 8th rule which says, 
<fec, (repeat the rule.) 
l 

Cheerfulness 1 1 is a noun, (define it, and observe the order 
as shown above, in regard to nouns,) and it is in the objective 
case, and also governed by the active transitive verb spreads, 
in connection with the noun ease, according to the 1 1 th rule, 
which says, &c, (repeat the rule.) 

8 

Around is a preposition; (define it,) it connects the verb 
spreads and the pronoun it, and shows the relation between 
them ; around it is the adjunct of the verb spreads, and, as an 
adverb, locates the place of the action expressed by the verb. 
(See adjuncts, Index.) 

4 

It 17 is a personal pronoun; (define it,) it personates (or 
stands for, ) the noun rrind, with which it agrees, according to 
rule 5th, which says, &c, (repeat the rule.) 

1. It is of the neuter gender, because it denotes a thing with- 
out sex. 

10 



213 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. It is of the third person, because it is spoken of. 

3. It is of the singular number, because it implies but one. 

4. And it is in the objective case, governed by the preposi- 
tion around, according to the 17th rule, which says, &c, (re- 
peat the rule.) 

See Order and Directions for parsing, Index. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Section 1. 

4 5 3 

I 1 am 1 sincere 8 .* 

4 5 3 

Thou 1 art 1 industrious. 8 

4 5 3 

He 1 is 1 disinterested. 8 

4 5 4 

We 1 honor 1 them. 11 

4 5 4 

You 1 encourage 1 us. 1 1 

4 5 4 

They 1 commend 1 her. 11 

4 5 5 

Thou 1 dost improve. 1 

4 5 4 

He 1 assisted 1 me. 1 1 

4 5 3f 1 

We 1 completed 1 our 8 journey. 1 1 

3 15 5 4 

Our 8 hopes 1 did flatter 1 us. 11 

4 5 5 4 

They 1 have deceived 1 me. 11 

3 1 5 5 

Your 8 expectation 1 has failed. 1 

4 5 5 

They 1 may offend. 1 

4 5 5 

I 1 can forgive. 1 

4 5 5 4 

He 1 might surpass 1 them. 1 1 

4 5 5 4 

We 1 could overtake 1 him. 1 1 

4 5 5 3 

I 1 would be 1 happy. 8 

4 5 5 

You 1 shall repent. 1 



* Adjectives belong to the nouns represented by the pronouns. 
■rSee Adjective Pronouns; Index. 



SYNTAX EXERCISES IN PARSING. 219 

4 5 5 5 4 

He 1 may have deceived 1 me. 11 

4 5 5 5 

They 1 may have forgotten. 1 

4 5 5 5 

Thou 1 mightst have forgotten. 1 

2 15 5 

The 9 accident 1 had happened. 1 

4 5 5 4 

He 1 had resigned 1 himself. 11 

3 15 5 4 

Their 8 fears 1 will detect 1 them. 11 

4 5 5 

You 1 shall submit. 1 

4 5 5 4 

They 1 will obey 1 us. 11 

3 1 5 5 

Good 8 humor 1 shall prevail. 1 

4 5 5 5 

He 1 will have determined. 1 

4 5 5 5 

We 1 shall have agreed 1 

4 5 5 5 

We 1 have been rewarded. 1 

4 5 5 5 

She 1 had been admired. 1 

1 5 5 5 

Virtue 1 will be rewarded. 1 

2 1 55 5 7&9* 2 

The 9 person 1 will have been executed 1 when 15 the 9 

1 5 

pardon 1 arrives. 1 

4 5 5 5 

It 1 can be enlarged. 1 

4 5 5 5 

You 1 may be discovered. 1 

4 5 5 5 

He 1 might be convinced. 1 

4 5 5 5 

It 1 would be caressed. 1 

4 5 5 5 5 

I 1 may have been deceived. 1 

4 5 5 5 5 

They 1 might have been honored. 1 

5 4 9 4 4 

Know 1 (ye 1 or 3 you 1 ) yourselves. 1 1 f 

* Adverbial conjunctions connect senten ces, and also qualify verbs; 
parse the one above first as a conjunction, without Rule; then as an adverb 
qualifying the verb arrives, by Rule 15. 

t The words included in parentheses, are understood. The nomina- 
tive to the imperative mood is usually understood; and it is to be con- 
sidered singular number, unless otherwise shown by the context. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5 4 9 4 3 1 

Prepare 1 (ye 1 or 3 you 1 ) your 8 lessons. 1 1 

5 4 5 

Be you 1 entreated. 1 

5 4 8 4 

Come 1 (thou 1 ) to me. 1 7 

5 4 8 5 

Let 1 him 11 (to*) advance. 12 

5 4 8 5 

Let 1 them 11 (to) depart. 12 

5 4 8 5 

Let 1 us 11 (to) consider. 12 

5 4 8 5 5 

Let 1 him 11 (to) be animated. 12 

5 7 8 5 7 

We 1 dare 1 not 15 (to) do 12 so. 15 

4 5 7 8 5 4 

Ye 1 dare 1 not 1 5 (to) do 1 2 it. 1 x 

4 5 4 8 5 7 

I 1 bade 1 him 11 (to) do 12 so. 15 

4 5 4 8 5 

I 1 saw 1 him 11 (to) run. 12 

4 5 4 8 5 

Thou 1 lettest 1 him 11 (to) go. 12 

4 5 8 5 4 8 5 

I 1 expect 1 to see 12 him 11 (to) start. 12 

4 5 4 8 5 4 

They 1 heard 1 him 11 (to) say 12 it. 11 

4*5 5 4 V 8 7 5 J 

He 1 can make 1 us 11 (to) go. 12 

4 5 7 8 V i 5 

You 1 need 1 not 15 (to) go. 12 

4 5 4 8 5 4 

I 1 feel 1 him 11 (to) touch 12 me. 11 

4 5 4 5 

"We 1 expect 1 them 11 to come. 12 

4 5 8 5 

He 1 intended 1 to go. 1 2 

4 5 7 3 1 

He 1 needs 1 not 1 5 our 8 encouragement. 1 1 

8 5 5 4 5 5 3 

To be trusted 12 we 1 must be 1 virtuous. 8 

8 5 2 1 5 3 

f To see the sun 11 is 1 pleasant. 8 

* The infinitive mood following bid, dare, let, fyc, has the preposition 
to understood. See Rule 12 and notes. 

f The infinitive, as in many other places, takes the construction of a 
noun, as a thing; and according to note 1 under rule 1, is the subject of 
of the verb, or the object of a transitive verb, as To see the sun is a 
pleasant thing, or sight. See note 1 under rule 12; and abridged pro- 
positions. Index. 



SYNTAX EXERCISES IN PARSING. 221 

855 5 5 8 * . 31 

To have been admired 1 availed 1 (to) him 1 7 little. 11 

8 5 7 5 3 

To live well 1 is 1 honorable. 8 

8 5 5 4 5 3 3 

To have conquered himself 1 was his 8 highest 8 honor .-£* 

8 5 3 5 8 5 ? 

To be good 1 is 1 to be happy.— 

6 1 '453 

Promoting 1 other's 1 ° welfare 1 4 they 1 advanced 1 their 8 

3 1 

own 8 interest. 11 

4 5 6.f 8 3 1 

He 1 lives 1 respected 1 by his 8 neighbors. 17 

& t 6 3 1 4 5 

Having resigned 1 his 9 office 14 he 1 retired. 

4 5 5 

He 1 was condemned.! 1 

3 15 4 4 5 4 

This 8 book 1 is 1 his, 1 ° it 1 was 1 mine. 1 ° 

3. 1 5 4 3. 1 5 4 

These 1 are 1 yours, 1 ° those 1 are 1 mine. 1 ° 

3 15 3 

Our 8 hearts 1 are 1 deceitful. 8 

3 1 5 3 1 

Your 8 conduct 1 met 1 their 8 approbation. 1 . 1 

3. 1 5 4 5 5 4 

None 1 met 1 who 6 could avoid 1 it. 11 

3 J 5 3 1 

His 8 esteem 1 is 1 my 8 honor. 1 / 

3 1 5 8 4 1 

Her 8 work 1 does 1 (to) her 17 credit. 11 

3. 1 5 5 2 1 

Each 1 must answer 1 the 9 question. 11 

3 J 5 4 3 1 

Every 8 heart 1 knows 1 its 10 own 8 sorrows. 11 

3. 1 5 5 4§ 5 8 5 

His 1 is finished, 1 thine 1 ° is 1 to do. 12 

4$ 5 5 4§ 5 7 5 

Hers 1 ° is finished, 1 ours 1 ° is not commenced. 1 



* - 4 - Means the 4th note under rule 11, for nouns, <fcc, in opposition; 
other notes are referred to in a similar way. 

f See 3d Clause of Rule 1, and remember the 2d Clause of Rule 1. 

t The pupil will remember that in the compound tenses of verbs, the 
perfect participle is a componant part of the verb ; it is also the case 
in regard to the passive verb, and the neuter verb in passive form : and so 
is the present participle when associated with the verb Be ; as, am walk- 
ing. is laughing, Sfc. This last is called the progressive form of the con- 
jugation of the verb. 

§ See declension of the pronouns, &c., and Rule X. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
6 6 6 4 5 3 

Kidiculed, 1 despised, 1 persecuted, 1 lie 1 maintained* his 8 
i 
principles. 11 

? 6 4 5 

Being reviled, 1 we 1 bless. 1 

6 6 6 4 5 6 

Having been deserted, 1 he 1 became 1 discouraged. 1 

3 3 1 5 4 

This 8 uncouth 8 figure 1 startled 1 him. 11 

4 5 5 4 5 5 4 

I 1 have searched, 1 I 1 have found 1 it. 11 

4 5 3 1 4 5 5 

They 1 searched 1 those 8 rooms, 11 he 1 was gone?- (Was 
gone is a neuter verb in passive form.) 

4 3 5 1 

"Which V* was 1 his 8 choice 1 ? 

4 5 3. 1 

It 1 was 1 neither. Y 

3. 1 5 3 1 

This 1 was 1 his 8 choice, y 

3. 15 43 14 4 5 

This 1 is 1 what (that 1 -* which 6 ) I 1 feared. 1 

2 1 6 3 4 2 

The 9 sight\ being new, 8 he 1 startled. 1 [See Note 5, Rule 1.1 

216745 

The 9 suni- being up, 15 we 1 started. 1 

3. 1 5 * 2 1 8 5 

All 1 have 1 a 9 talent 11 to improve. 12 

3. 152 1 4 44 5 

That 1 is 1 the 9 thing 1 -* (what) which 6 I 1 desired. 1 

4 5 5 4 

Whof- can preserve 1 himself ?* * 

4 1 5 3. 1 

Whose x ° books V are 1 these? 1 

4 5 4 5 

Whom 11 have we 1 served? 1 

3. 1 5 3 1 5 3 

Some 1 are 1 negligent; 8 others 1 (are 1 ) industrious. 8 

3. 1 5 5 1 1 

One 1 may deceive 1 one's 1 ° self. 1 1 

* In interrogative sentences, the subject often comes after the verb, and 
the subject predicate often precedes the verb, as in the one above. Inter- 
rogative sentences often need their parts transposed ; and the only way 
to tell when transposition is necessary, is to find out what is predicated 
or asked for, by answering the question : the answer must be in the de- 
clarative form, from which you can know what case or position to assign 
the noun or pronoun in the interrogative sentence : as, " Whose book is 
this?" Ans. " This is John's book." "Whoisfo?" Ans " He is 
John." See Q. and A. on the Interrogative Pronoun, and !Note 1 under 
Rule VI. 



SYNTAX EXERCISES IN PARSING. 223 

5 3.1 5 4 

Can any 1 dispute 1 it ? l l 

3 5 3 J 

Such 8 is 1 our 8 condition. 1 (Transpose). 

215584 3 1 

I. A 9 verb 1 must agree 1 with its 10 nominative 8 case 17 

8 1 9 1 

in number 17 and 18 person. 17 

2 1 823 1 5582 

II. The 9 subject 1 of a 9 finite 8 verb 17 is put 1 in the 

3 1 

nominative 8 case. 17 

3 5 8 2 19 

III. Every 8 participle 1 refers 1 to a 9 noun 17 or 18 pro- 

1 6 4 19 1 

noun 1 7 denoting 1 its l ° subject 1 4 or x 8 agent. 1 4 

jElFThe pupil should remember, that although the 1st, 6th 
and 9th Rules contain several clauses each, yet the Rule is re- 
ferred to in the parsing exercises, and not the particular clause 
of the Rule. He should, therefore, in regard to these divided 
Rules, be careful to designate the clause of the Rule to be ap- 
plied ; as, 1st, 2d, or 3d clause of Rule 1st, or 1st or 2d of 
Rule 6th, or 1st or 2d of Rule 9th. The second clause of Rule 
8th is never applied in parsing, yet its importance should be 
understood by the pupil. 

The pupil should also be careful to repeat the Rules and Notes 
precisely as they read ; and in parsing, he should not allow him- 
self to use language which is not in conformity with the re- 
quirements of the Rules of Syntax. To avoid a settled habit 
of bad language in parsing, the pupil should occasionally apply 
the Rules of Syntax to the words and phrases used by him in 
the parsing process ; and he should not, with indifference, omit 
the methodical arrangement of the affair, so pleasingty set forth 
in the Order of Parsing, (See Directions for Parsing, Order);, 
for this, of itself, will, if properly attended to, be to him no 
small means of improvement. 

If, at any time, in the process of parsing, the pupil should be 
at a loss, or seem to hesitate as to the manner in which he 
should proceed, he should form a question, comprehending, as 
well as he can do so, the matter in doubt, and refer accordingly. 
In order more effectually to do this, he will observe the following 

General Rule. 

When a difficulty occurs in regard to the Ety- 
mology or Syntax of a word, phrase or sentence, 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

consider, first, the part of speech, modification, 
&c.j about which the difficulty has arisen; upon 
this, as a general head, frame such a question as 
you would naturally propose to your teacher, for 
an explanation ; retaining this in mind, refer to 
the index for a direction to the solution of the 
subject in hand ; pursue the subject so found in 
the Questions and Answers, (or elsewhere as re- 
ferred to), until a question similar to your own 
be found, as already written out, answered, and 
exampled : examine this well in all its bearings 
and references, both in Etymology and Syntax, 

By a careful adherence to this Rule, the difficulty will soon 
be found to give place to what is plain and intelligible. The 
beneficial results of this course were abundantly proven, by 
many inquiring pupils having the perusal of this work, whilst 
in MS. It is well, also, perhaps, here to remind the learner, 
that the entire business of parsing, as a mental exercise, is cal- 
culated alike to arouse and call forth, into lively action, the 
latent powers of the mind, and to teach him the happy arts of 
reason and reflection; upon the prudential exercise of which 
alone, he can reasonably look as a basis for his hopes of success 
in the vicissitudes of an eventful life. So much the more, 
therefore, ought he to seek industriously, to lay well the foun- 
dation of his future aspirations, by preparing his mind, by 
proper culture, for the reception and practice of the truths of 
science, which, as so many beacon lights, are continually bec- 
koning him onward in the pursuit of wisdom and happiness. 

SECTION II. 

CONTAINING A GREATER VARIETY OF THE PARTS 
OF SPEECH. 

4 5 5 4 7 7 7^ 

I 1 have seen 1 him 11 once, 15 perhaps 15 twice. 15 

7 9 7 4 5 5 

Thirdlv 15 and 18 lastly, 15 I 1 shall conclude. 1 (Rule 21 
Note 7)/ 

3 15 5 7 8 7 

This 8 plant 1 is found 1 here, 1 5 and 18 elsewhere. 15 
(Rule 3, Note 2). 



SYNTAX EXERCISES IN PARSING. 225 

3 15 7 4 

Only 8 to-day 1 is 1 properly 1 5 ours. 1 ° 

2 15 7 5 

The 9 task 1 is already 1 5 performed. 1 

457 5 4 7 946 

We 1 could not 1 5 serve 1 him 11 then, 15 but 1 8 we 1 will 1 

6 7 

/ — i ) hereafter. 1 5 

V 4 7 5 947 5 

We 1 often 15 resolve, 1 but 18 we 1 seldom 15 perform. 1 

467 7 6. 37 9 

He 1 is 1 much 1 5 more 1 5 promising 8 now 1 5 than 2 ° 

7 

formerly. 1 5 

7 545 7645 

When 1 5 will they 1 arrive 1 ? When 1 5 shall we 1 stop 2 1 

7 9 7 4 5 7 9 

Mentally 15 and 18 bodily, 15 we 1 are curiously 15 and 18 

7 5 

wonderfully x s formed . l 

4 5 8 1 8 1 8 

They 1 traveled 1 through France, 17 in haste 17 towards 
Italy. 1 7 

8 1 8 12 5 3 

From virtue 17 to vice, 17 the 9 progress 1 is 1 gradual. 8 * 

81 9 1 4511 

By diligence 17 and 18 frugality, 17 we 1 arrive 1 at compe- 
tency. 1 7 

457 831 9 8 3 

We 1 are 1 often 15 below our 8 wishes, 17 and 18 above our 8 
l 
desert. 1 7 

31 584 3. 1 5 8 

Some 8 things 1 make 1 for him, 1 7 others 1 (make 1 ) against 
him. 1 7 

4 5 7 9 7 5 

We 1 are wisely 1 5 and 1 8 happily 1 5 directed. 1 

457 5 3 945 

He 1 has certainly 15 been 1 diligent, 8 and 18 he 1 will 

7 4 

probably 15 succeed. 1 

7 7 2 15 

How 1 5 sweetly 1 5 the 9 birds 1 sing. 1 

7 5 4 7 3 

Why 1 5 art 1 thou 1 so 1 5 heedless ? 8 

* To show the relation of the preposition, it often becomes necessary 
to transpose the sentence, or so much as is necessary for that purpose : 
as, "gradual from virtue to vice," and sometimes much is understood to 
render the connection truly intelligible ; as "The progress is gradual (in 
its decent) from virtue to vice." See adjuncts. 



£26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4 5 7 3 7 7 3 

He 1 is 1 little 15 attentive, 8 nay, 15 absolutely 15 stupid. 8 

4 5 8 3 1 

He 1 lives 1 within his 8 income. 17 

2 155823 1 9 8 

The 9 house 1 was sold 1 at a 9 great 8 price 17 , and 18 above 

4 1 

its 1 ° value. 1 7 

458 1 7 9 57 

She 1 came 1 downstairs 17 slowly, 15 and 18 went 1 briskly 15 

8 (1) 7 m 

up ( 17 ) again. 15 

31 9 19158 

His 8 father, 1 and 2 mother 1 and 2 uncle, 1 reside 1 at 
l 
Rome. 17 

455 3 9455 3 

We 1 must be 1 temperate, 8 if 19 we 1 would be 1 happy. 8 

45739 3 1 97 

He 1 is 1 as 15 old 8 as 20 his 8 companion, 2 °* but 1 8 not 15 

7 6.3 

so 15 learned. 8 

155 9 459 3 9 

Charles 1 is esteemed, 1 because 18 he 1 is 1 both discreet 8 and 

3 

benevolent. 8 

4 5 5 9 4 5 

We 1 will stay 1 till 1 8 he 1 arrives 1 . 

4 5 85 7 9 455 

He 1 retires 1 to rest 12 soon, 15 that 18 he 1 may rise 1 

7 

early. 1 5 

4 585 3 945 5 

We 1 ought 1 to be 12 thankful 8 for 18 we 1 have received 1 

3 1 

much. 11 

83 1 45 5 8 3 

By his 8 imprudence 17 he 1 was plunged 1 into new 8 diffi- 
l 
culties. 17 

82181 4 5 4 

Without; the 9 aid 17 of charity, 17 he 1 supported 1 himself 11 
8 i m 

with credit. 1 7 

83 1 31555 8 3 

Of his 8 talents 1 7 much 1 might be said ; l concerning his 8 

* The 20th Rule is here applied to show, that the noun companion is 
in the nominative case to is understood by Rule 1, because it is in com- 
parison with He, and must be in a similar case. Remember this note, 
and apply the 20th Rule in all similar cases, as the noun or pronoun 
after than and as will hereafter be otherwise marked. 



SYNTAX EXERCISES IN PARSING. 227 

1 1 6 5 5 

integrity, 17 nothing 1 , {might be said. 1 ) 

8 3 1 4*5 4 7 

On all 8 occasions 17 he 1 behaved 1 himself 11 properly. 15 

9 1 9 15 5 1 

Neither 3 prosperity 1 nor 3 adversity 1 has improved 1 him. 11 
He 1 can acquire 1 no 8 virtue 11 unless 19 he 1 make 1 

3 1 > 

some 8 sacrifices. 1 1 

5444 5 851 

Let 1 (thou 1 ) him 11 that 6 standeth 1 (to) take 12 heed 11 

9 4 5 

lest 19 he 1 fall. 1 

94 53 3. 1 4 5 7 

If 19 thou 1 werti his 8 superior,-^ thou 1 shouldst not 15 

5 5 

have boasted. 1 

4555 9 4521 

He 1 will be detected, 1 though 1 9 he 1 deny 1 the 9 fact. 11 * 

9455 455 7 

If 19 he 1 has promised, 1 he 1 should act 1 accordingly. 15 * 

4 5 5 9 4 5 5 

She 1 will transgress, 1 unless 19 she 1 be admonished. 1 

9 4 5 5 4 5 5 

If 19 he 1 were encouraged, 1 he 1 would amend. 1 

9 4 5 4 4 5 5 4= 

Though 19 he 1 condemn 1 me, 11 I 1 will respect 1 him. 11 

3 15 7 3 9 3 

Their 8 talents 1 are 1 more 15 brilliant 8 than 18 useful. 8 

8 31 45239 

Notwithstanding his poverty, * 7 he 1 is 1 a 9 wise 8 and wor- 
thy 8 person. *£> 

4 8 (7) f 3 6 7 5 82 1 .8 

We 1 in vain, 1 5 (or vainly 1 5 ) look 1 for a 9 path 1 7 between 

1 9 2 

virtue 1 7 and 1 8 vice. 1 7 

9 457 5 9 457 

Though he 1 is often 1 5 advised, 1 yet 18 he 1 does not 15 

5 

improve. 1 



* It should be remembered the subjunctive mood has two forms ; one 
implies doubt, &c, in connection with future time; the other implies 
doubt only. See 19th Rule aud Notes. 

f As it is often the case that several words together are taken as a 
phrase, the words, as separate parts of speech, will be denoted by the ap- 
propriate figures ; but figures denoting the kind of phrase, will be inser- 
ted in parentheses amongst them, and the entire phrase italicised, as 
above. See Phrases. Often one adverb will stand for an entire clause ; 
as, vainly for in vain, or in a vain manner, fyc. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 9 5 9 5 4 1 

Reproof 1 either 3 softens 1 or 3 hardens 1 its 10 object. 11 

9453 457 3 

Though he 1 is 1 lively, 8 he 1 is 1 not 15 volatile. 8 

10 1 7 3 4 5 

O peace, I how 15 amiable 8 thou 1 art I 1 

4567 5 10 81 

I 1 have been often 1 5 occupied, 1 alas! with trifles. 17 

10 9 4 5 5 7 5 

Strange ! that we 1 should be so 1 5 infatuated 1 . 

10 2 1 (10) 8 4 1 5 4 

O ! the 9 humiliation to which 1 7 vice 1 reduces 1 us ! 1 1 

9315 3 3155 

If 19 our 8 desires 1 are 1 moderate, 8 our 8 wants 1 will be 1 

3 

few. 8 

97 5 947 5^4 

Hope 1 often 15 amuses, 1 but (it 1 ) seldom 15 satisfies 1 us. 11 

10 7 7 2 1 5 

Hark! how 15 sweetly 15 the 9 woodlark 1 sings. 1 

10 2 1 (10) 8 1 

Ah ! the delusions of hope ! 

10 1 18 3 1 

Hail simplicity \\ source | of genuine 8 joy. 1 7 

5. 10 7 3458 1 85 

Behold! how 15 pleasant 8 it is 1 for brethren 17 to dwell 13 

7 8 X 

together 15 in unity. 17 

3. (10) 7 3 7 3 1 

Welcome again! my 8 long 15 lost 8 friend. \ 



SECTION III, 

A few instances of the same words constituting several of 
the different parts of speech. The office of the word will enable 
the pupil to determine its character, or class. See Office of 
Word, Index. 

3 5 2 19 2 1 3 

Calm* was 1 the 9 day, 1 and 1 8 the 9 scene 1 delightful. 8 

4 5 5 2 1 8 2 1 

We 1 may expect 1 a 9 calm 1 1 after a 9 storm. 1 7 

85 153 9 85 4 

To prevent passionf- is 1 easier 8 than 1 8 to calm it. 1 * 

352318 1 9 23 1 

Better 8 is 1 a 9 little 1 with content, 1 7 than 1 8 a 9 great 8 deal 1 

8 1 

with anxiety. 1 7 

2 3.19 2 3.1 5 7 82 

The 9 gay 1 and 18 the 9 dissolute 1 think 1 little 15 of the 9 

1 4 5 5 7 8 4 

miseries 1 7 that 1 are stealing 1 softly 1 5 after them. 1 7 



SYNTAX — EXERCISES IN PARSING. 229 

2 3 1 5 5 3 1 

A 9 little 3 attention 1 will rectify 1 some 8 errors. 1 1 

9 45 7. 88 1 45 7 3 

Though he 1 is 1 out of* danger, 17 he 1 is 1 still 15 afraid. 8 

3 15 7 3 

Still 9 waters 1 are 1 commonly 15 deepest. 8 

3 9 7 5 7 

f Fair 8 and 1 8 softly 1 5 go 1 far. 1 5 

2 15 7 5 

The 9 /air 1 was numerously 15 attended. 1 

3 1 5 3 9 3 

His 8 benefactor 1 is 1 /air 3 and honorable. 8 

3 15 3 

Damp 3 air 1 is 1 unwholesome. 8 

17 5 2 1 8 3 

Guilt 1 often 15 casts 1 a 9 damp 11 over our 8 sprightliest 8 
l 
hours. 1 7 

3 1 521 7 (7) 7 9 

Soft 8 bodies 1 damp 1 the 9 sound 1 x much more 1 5 than 2 ° 

3 1 

hard 8 ones. 1 

9 453 93 9 467 

Though she 1 is 1 rich 8 and fair, 8 yet 1 3 she 1 is 1 not 15 

3 

amiable. 8 

4 5 3 9 5 5 3 

They 1 are 1 yet 15 young, 3 and 18 must suspend 1 their 8 

1 9 (7) 7^ 

judgment 11 yet awhile. 15 

3 153945 48 

Many 8 persons 1 are 1 better 8 than we 1 suppose 1 them 1 v to 
be. 12 

2 3. 1 2 3. 1 5 3 1 

The 9 /ew 1 and 1 8 the 9 many 1 hare 1 their 8 prepossessions. 1 1 

3 1 5 8 3 1 

Few 3 days 1 pass 1 without some 8 clouds. 17 

2 15 7 3 

The 9 hail 1 was 1 very 15 destructive. 8 

* Out of is a compound proposition, which see, Index. Drive the 
cat from under the table. Camp. prep. 

t This is an abridged proposition, and to reduce it to proper form 
for analysis, requires, perhaps, greater skill than belongs to the young 
grammarian. The phrase, as above, is an adage, an axiom, aproverb, a 
general principUt or leading truth ; a saying containing much in little. It 
seems to contain the idea that there are two ingredients, in the character 
of a man, that go far to elevate him in the estimation of others, or to 
advance his interest and happiness ; to wit, 1st. Fair dealing ; and 2d, 
dealing softly with others. Hence the axiom is formed of the fewest 
and most prominent words that will embrace the idea, and reduce it to 
a short saying, or proverb. Our language abounds with many such. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

10 1 18 3 1 

Hail Virtue!^ Source^ of every 8 good. 17 

4 5 4 9 3 . 1 

We 1 hail 1 you 11 as 20 our friends. 1 1 or - 4 - L 

3 3 5 6. s. 

Much* money 1 is 1 corrupting. 8 

5 7 9 5 7 

Think 1 much 1 5 and 1 8 speak 1 little. 1 5 

4551 82 1 95 5 

He 1 has seen 1 much 11 of the 9 world, 17 and ( — ) been 

7 5 

much 1 5 caressed. 1 

31539 4945 

His 8 years 1 are 1 more 1 than 2 ° hers, 1 ° but 1 8 he 1 has 1 

7 3 1 9 4 1 

not 15 more* knowledge 11 (than 20 she 1 has. 1 ) 

2 (7) 7 4 5 5 2 (7) 7 3 4 

The more 15 we 1 are blessed, 1 the more 15 grateful 8 we 1 

5 5 

should be. 1 * 

2 18 6 3. 1 57 5 

The 9 desire 1 of getting more 1 4 is rarely 1 5 satisfied. 1 

2 (3) 3 2 (3) 3 m 

The more, the merrier. (Adjective phrases A) 

455231 821 

We 1 must make 1 a 9 like 8 space 11 between the 9 lines. 17 

* Sentences that express circumstances of comparison, require a cor- 
responding conjunction to connect the clauses. The more, the greater, 
the faster, the sooner, fyc, denote comparison, and refer to something in 
another sentence, with which the comparison is made, as in the one above 
referred to, and others similar; but in the one above, there is no conjunc- 
tion to connect the clauses, and as it stands, it admits none; to be 
parsed, therefore, its members must be transposed, and the necessary el- 
lipsis supplied ; thus, " We should be the more grateful, as, (on seeing 
that) we are the more greatly blessed/'' — " The faster he runs, the sooner 
he will be there;" — i. e., '.' He will be there the sooner in proportion to the 
time whichhe gains in running the faster/ 7 or, " the time which he gains 
as he runs the faster/' — "He runs the faster that he may be there the 
sooner." 

It may not be improper to remark in connection with the foregoing 
note, that the article the is sometimes used in connection with the com- 
paratives and superlatives, in order "to mark the degree the more 
strongly ; and to denote it the more precisely ;" when so used, it looses 
its identity as an article restricting the signification of a noun, and 
assumes that of an adverb in modifying an adjective or an adverb, which 
office belongs only to the adverb. The associations as above, may be 
called adjective or adverbial phrases, as the combination seems to justify 
the adjective or adverbial element. See L. Murray's 8vo. Grammar, p. 33, 
also Gould Brown's Grammar, p. 465, obs. 10, and Rev. Peter Bullions' 
English Grammar, p. 147. 

f See also Green's Analysis ; Page 95. 



SYNTAX EXERCISES IN PARSING. 231 

4 5 3 1 9 3 1 

He 1 has 1 equal 9 knowledge, 11 but 18 inferior 8 judgment. 11 

5 4 3 1 

Am 1 I 1 Lis 8 equal ?\± 

3 1 5 4 1 

Every 8 being 1 loves 1 its 10 like. 11 

5 4 4 7 8 1 

Behave 1 (ye 1 ) yourselves 1 x like 15 (unto) men. 17 

4 5 V 7 ' J 3 8 5 3 V ' 1 

We 1 are 1 too 15 apt 8 to like 12 pernicious 8 company. 11 

4559 5 945 

He 1 may go 1 or 1 8 stay, 1 as 2 ° he 1 likes. 1 

5 4 85 4 589 (7) 8 

Strive 7 (thou 1 ) to learn. 12 He 1 goes 1 to and fro. 15 

8 3 1 4 5 3 1 

To his 8 wisdom 17 we 1 owe 1 our 8 privilege. 11 

2 1 5 3 8 (3) 3 9 3.1 5 8 3. 1 

The 9 proposition 1 is 1 ten to one 9 (or, as ten are to one.*) 

4 5 5 4 8 3 3 1 

He 1 has served 1 them 11 with his 8 utmost 9 ability. 17 

7&9 453 1 3 15 5 

When 15 we 1 do 1 our 8 utmost, 11 no 8 more 1 is required. 1 

45 5 94 59 1 5 

I 1 will submit, 1 for I 1 know (that) submission 1 brings 1 
l 
peace. 1 x 

45831 85 3 

It 1 is 1 for our 8 health 17 to be 12 temperate. 8 

10 83 1 10 45 83 1 

! for better 9 times I 1 7 ! (I 1 wish 1 ) for better 8 times I 1 7 

4 5 2 1 8 4 

I 1 have 1 a 9 regard 1 x for him. 1 7 

45 59833 1 9 8 

He 1 is esteemed 1 both on his 8 own 8 account 17 and 18 on 

2. 1 8 3 1 

that 1 7 of his 8 parents. 1 7 

3. 1 8 4 5 1 

Both 1 of them 17 deserve 1 praise. 11 

1 5 2 3 1 

Yesterday 1 was 1 a 9 fair 8 day.- 4 x 

457 7 45781 

I 1 rode 1 out 15 yesterday. 1 5 — I 1 rode 1 out 15 on yesterday. 17 

4 5 5 7 8 1 

I 1 shall write 1 to-morrow. 1 5 ( — On to-morrow. 1 7 ) 

15 5 3 9 1 5 

To-morrow 1 may be 1 brighter 8 than 2 ° to-day 1 (is. 1 ) 

5 2 6. 3 1 2 15 7 6.5 

See 1 the 9 rising* sun. 1 1 The 9 sun 1 is now 1 5 rising. 1 

4521 6 82 1 

I 1 saw 1 the 9 sun 11 setting 1 in the 9 West. 17 
* Ten units are to one unit. 



232 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



tj 5 21 682 83 

Behold 1 the 9 sun 1 rising 1 in. the 9 majesty 17 of his 8 
strength. 1 7 

I , 5 f 8 5 2 6. 1 9 2 6. 1 

I I love 1 to contemplate 12 the 9 rising 11 and the 9 setting 11 
of the 9 sun. 1 7 See participles, and JSTote 4 under Rule 14. 



SECTION IV, 
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

83 3 1 53 9 6-3 

In your 8 whole 8 behavior 17 be 1 humble 8 and 18 obliging. 8 
Virtue 1 is 1 the 9 universal 8 charm. 1 ^ 

4 5 585 7 98 

We 1 should endeavor 1 to please, x 2 rather 1 5 than 20 to 

5 9 8 5 

shine 12 and 18 (to) dazzle. 12 

3 1 54 4821 

True 8 happiness 1 has 1 its 10 seat 11 in the 9 heart. 17 

1 5 7 8 6 8 

Opportunities 1 occur 1 daily 15 for strengthening 1 in our- 
selves, 17 the 9 habits 14 of virtue. 17 

1 5 485 2 18 

Compassion 1 prompts 1 us 11 to relieve 12 the 9 wants 11 of 

3. 1 

others. 1 7 

23 15 3 85 189 

A 9 good 8 mind 1 is 1 unwilling 8 to give 12 pain 11 to either 3 
man 17 or 3 (to) beast. 17 

1 9 17 5 8 1 

Peevishness 1 and 1 8 passion 1 often 1 5 produce 1 from trifles, 1 7 

2 7 3 1 

the 9 most 1 5 serious 8 mischiefs. 1 * 

17 5 1 7 3 

Discontent 1 often 15 nourishes 1 passion, 11 equally 15 malig- 

8 2 1 8 8 2 1 

nant 8 in the 9 cottage 17 and 18 in the 9 palace. 17 

23 183 1558 

A 9 great 8 proportion 1 of human 8 evils 1 7 is created 1 by 

4 

ourselves. 17 

2 18 1 5 7 5 5 

A 9 passion 1 for revenge 1 7 has always 1 5 been considered 1 

921823 9 23 1 

as 2 ° a 9 mark 1 of a 9 little 8 and 1 8 a 9 mean 8 mind. 1 7 



SYNTAX PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 233 

9 5 3 4 4 5 3 

If 19 greatness 1 flatters 1 our 8 vanity, 11 it 1 multiplies 1 our 8 
i 
dangers. 1 1 

8331 45 7 3 

To our 8 own 8 failing, 17 we 1 are 1 commonly 15 blind. 8 

2 1 83 1 57 7 

The 9 friendships 1 of young 8 persons, 17 are often 17 found- 
s 3 1 

ed 1 on capricious 8 likings. 17 

8 3 3 1 5 3 1 8 

In your 8 youthful 8 amusements, 1 7 let 1 no 8 unfairness 1 1 (to) 

6 5 

be found. 12 

5 49683 1 33 

Engrave 1 (ye 1 or you 1 ) on your* minds 17 this 8 sacred 8 

1 6494 8 3. 1 94 5 

rule: 11 — "Do 1 (ve 1 or you 1 ) unto others, 17 as you 1 wish 

9 4 5*584 

that 1 8 they 1 should do 1 unto you." 1 7 

19 1 5 2 3 1 

Truth 1 and 2 candor 1 possess 1 a 9 powerful 8 charm ; l * 

4 5 3 1 

they 1 bespeak 1 universal 3 favor. 1 l 

82 3 1 8 1 457 

After the 9 first 8 departure 1 7 from sincerity, 17 it 1 is 1 sel- 

8 3 18 5 3 1 7 

dom 15 in our 8 power 17 to stop; 12 one 8 artifice 1 generally 15 

578 3. 1 9 15 5 9 

leads 1 on 15 to another, 17 until habit 1 is confirmed, 1 and 18 

1 5 5 

reputation 1 is ruined. 1 

6 2 1 81 8 2 3 

Temper 1 the 9 vivacity 11 of youth, 17 with a 9 proper 8 

18 3 1 

mixture 17 of serious 8 thought. 17 

2 1831 5 33 9 

The 9 spirit 1 of true 8 religion 17 is 1 social, 8 kind, 8 and 
cheerful. 8 

53 1 82 3 18 

Let 1 no 8 compliance 11 with the 9 intemperate 8 mirth 17 of 

3. 1 7 8 5 4 8 3 1 

others, 17 ever 15 (to) betray 12 you 11 into profane 8 sallies. 17 

8 68 3 1 457 5 

In preparing 1 for another 8 world, 1 7 we 1 must not 1 5 neg- 

2 1 8 3 1 

lect 1 the 9 duties 11 of this 8 life. 17 

2 3 1 5 7 5 8 3 

A 9 plain 8 understanding 1 is often 15 joined 1 with great* 

worth. 1 7 

10» 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2 18 4 4 5 3 3 

The 9 manner 1 in which 17 we 1 employ 1 our 3 present 8 

1 5 5 3 3 19 i 

time, 1 * may decide 1 our 8 future 8 happiness 1 x or 1 8 misery. 11 * 

1 5 7 5 7 8 4 3 1 

Happiness 1 does not 15 grow 1 up 15 of its 10 own 8 accord; 17 

4 5 2 18 3 1 9 2 1 

it 1 is 1 the 9 fruity of long 8 cultivation, 1 7 and 1 8 the 9 acquisi- 

8 19 1 

tion 17 of labor 17 and 18 care. 17 

2 3 15 7 s 

The 9 brightest 8 talents 1 are sometimes 15 found 1 without 

1 9 * 

virtue 1 7 or 1 8 honor. 1 7 

7 352 1 823 1 

How 1 5 feeble 8 are 1 the 9 attractions 1 of the 9 fairest 8 form, 1 7 

7&9 1 8 2 1 5 8 4 

when 1 5 nothing 1 within (the 9 form 1 7 ) corresponds 1 to them. 1 7 

1915 7 3 9 6. 3 

Piety 1 and 2 virtue 1 are 1 particularly 1 5 graceful 8 and becom- 
ing 8 in youth. 17 

54 3 81 53 1 

Can we, 1 untouched 8 by gratitude, 17 view 1 that 8 profu- 

8 1 12 3 1 5 8 

sion 11 of good 17 which 6 the 9 Divine 8 hand 1 pours 1 around 
us? 17 

7 51 83 1 7 3 

There 15 is 1 nothing 1 in human 8 life 17 more 15 amiable 8 

9 3 92 1827 3 

and respectable, 8 than 2 ° the 9 character 1 of a 9 truly 1 5 humble 8 

9 o 15 

and respectable 8 man. 1 7 (is 2 ° ) 

3 1 57 3 93 9 

What 8 feelings 1 are 1 more 1 5 uneasy 8 and distressful 8 than 

2 18393 1 5 

the 9 workings 1 of sour 8 and angry 8 passions. 17 (are 20 ) 

315538 6 1 4 

No 8 man 1 can be 1 active 8 in disquieting 1 others 1 4 who 6 

57823 1 5 4 

does not 15 at the 9 same 8 time 17 disquiet 1 himself. 11 

2181 9 1 52 1 

A 9 life 1 of pleasure 1 7 and 1 8 dissipation 1 7 is 1 an 9 enemy 1 / 

8 11 9 1 

to health, 17 (— ) fortune 1 7 and 1 8 (— ) character. 17 

* The noun misery here, is not governed by the verb may decide ex- 
pressed, except it be taken in the alternative senses. The principle of 
the 3d Rule may be extended to two or more objects disjunctively con- 
nected after a verb or governing word. See the 3d Rule and Sotes^ 
and Compound Sentences j 



SYNTAX PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 235 

8 5 2 b 1 5 4 4 

To correct 1 2 the spirit 1 } of discontent, 1 7 let 1 (thou 1 ) us 1 1 

8 b 7 3. 1 3. 4 5 4 4 5 

(to) consider 12 how 15 little 1 x (that 1 is 1 which 6 ) we 1 deserve, 1 

9 7 3. 13. 45 4 45 

and 18 ( — ) how 15 much 1 1 (that 1 is 1 which 6 ) we 1 enjoy. 1 

9 (7&9) 9 1 5 8 5 5 8 1 . 4 

As far as 15 happiness 1 is 1 to be found 12 on earth, 1 7 we 

5584 782 1 9 , 82 

must look 1 for it, 17 not 15 in the 9 world, 17 or 18 (in) the 9 

1821 9 8 48 

things 17 of the 9 world; 17 but 1 8 (- — ) within ourselves, 1 7 in 

3 1 8 3 1 

our 8 tempers, 17 in our 8 hearts. 17 

9 3 1 5 8 5 1 8 

Though 1 9 bad 8 men 1 attempt 1 to turn 1 2 virtue 1 * into 

1 4 5482 1 84 1 

ridicule, 1 7 they 1 honor 1 it 1 x at the 9 bottom 1 7 of their 8 hearts. 1 7 

833 1 833 1 5 

Of what 8 small 8 moment 17 to our 8 real 8 happiness, 17 are 1 

3. 183 1 4 5 7 3 

many 1 of those 8 injuries 17 which 6 draw 1 forth 15 our 8 

l 
resentment I 1 1 

82 1 33 1 # 3 15 

In the 9 moments 1 7 of eager 8 contention, 1 7 every 8 thing 1 is 

5 9 1 8 4 5 

magnified 1 and 1 8 distorted 1 in its 1 ° appearance. 1 7 

1 8 2 7 3 1 5 7 

Multitudes, 1 in the 9 most 15 obscure 8 stations, 17 are 1 not 1 5 

7 383 31 97 6 

less 15 eager 8 in their 8 petty 8 broils, 1 7 nor 1 8 less 1 5 tormented 1 

83 1 9 4 559 3 

by their 8 passions, 1 7 than 2 ° (they 1 would be 1 ) if 1 9 princely 8 

1 5 2 18 4 4 5 

honors 1 were 1 the 9 prize— for which 1 7 they 1 contended. 1 

2 3 12 3 1 2 

The 9 smooth 8 stream, 2 the 9 serene 8 atmosphere, 2 the 9 

3 152 3 1 8 2 3 

mild 8 zephyr, 2 are 1 the 9 proper 8 emblems 11 of a 9 gentle 8 

1 9 2 3 1 

temper 1 7 and 1 8 a 9 peaceful 8 life. 1 7 

8 2 1 11 3. 158 9 3 

Among the 9 sons 17 of strife, 17 all 1 is 1 loud 8 and tempes- 
tuous. 8 

1 1 o 1 8 1 9 

Wisdom's 1 ° ways 1 are 1 ways 1 /- of pleasantness, 1 7 and 18 

3 3 3 15 1 

all 8 her 8 flowery 8 paths 1 are 1 peace. - 4 - 

iEST The perfect participle, when used in the compound 
tenses, is a part of the verb, and is denoted by the figure 5 as 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the complement of the verb, and is parsed accordingly. When 
it is used purely as a participle, without regard to the com- 
pound tenses, it is denoted by the figure 6, and parsed as a 
participle ; though, in many instances, by supplying the ellipsis, 
it may be properly made the complement of the passive verb, 
and, as in the compound tenses, parsed as one verb ; as, "The 

5 5 5 6 

rose had been washed, just washed in a shower;" "had been 
washed" is a passive verb in the pluperfect tense; "washed" 
as denoted by the figure 6, is a passive participle, and refers to 
the noun rose for its subject, yet, by supplying the ellipsis, we 
may properlv convert it into a passive verb ; thus, "The rose 

5 5 5 5 5 5 

had been washed, it had just been washed in a shower." 

The pupil should remember that all perfect participles are not 
passive, and that only the perfect participles derived from active 
, ransitive verbs help to form the passive verbs ; the same com- 
bination with regard to the perfect participle of an active intran- 
sitive verb, forms, not a passive verb, but what is called a 
neuter verb in passive form ; such as, is gone, is come, is grown, 
&c. , which would certainly be better expressed in the compound 
tenses ; as, has gone, has come, has grown, &c. 

The present participle combines with the neuter verb, in the 
progressive form of its conjugation, and is parsed accordingly, 
as either a transitive, or an intransitive verb, as its construc- 
tion requires. See Compound Tenses, Participles, &c. 

ILLUSTRATION OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

SECTION V. 

The following examples are designed to illustrate the force 
and meaning of the Rules of Syntax, therefore it is deemed 
necessary only to denote, by figures, those words calculated 
to exemplify the rule referred to. 

Rule L* (1st Clause.) 

1 5 

The contented mind 1 spreads 1 ease and cheerfulness around 
it. 

* The figure denoting the agreement of the verb with its nominative 
or subject, is placed immediately after that part of the verb required to 
vary its form on account of number and person ; the verb may be 
compound. 



SYNTAX THE RULES ILLUSTRATED. 237 

1 5 

The school 1 of experience teaches 1 many useful lessons. 

5 1 1 

In the path of life, are 1 many thorns 1 as well as flowers, 1 

5 

(are 1 in the path of life.) 

4 5 5 

Thou 1 shouldst 1 do justice to all men, ( — ) even to enemies. 

4 5 4 5 4 5 5 

Thou 1 art 1 stronger than he 1 is, 1 for he 1 has 1 been sick; 

4 5 

thou 1 enjoyest 1 good health. 

4 5 5 4 5 

I 1 have 1 been at school nine weeks, and I 1 expect 1 my 

15 5 

brother James 1 is 1 coming for me to-day. 
I left James studving 1 his lesson. 

6 6 4 6 6 4 

Being afflicted, 1 we mourn; being persecuted, 1 we bless. 
Rule II. 

19 1 5 

Vanity 1 and 2 presumption 1 ruin 1 many a promising youth. 

1 1 9 15 1 

Food, 1 clothing, 1 and 2 credit, 1 are 1 the rewards of industry. 

4 9 15 

He 1 and 2 William 1 live 1 together in great harmonv. 

1 9 4 945 5 3 

James, 1 and 2 thou 1 and I 1 are 1 attached to our country. 
Rule III. 

19 15 

jNo age 1 nor 3 condition 1 is 1 exempt from trouble. 

119 15 

Wealth, 1 virtue, 1 or 3 any valuable acquisition, 1 is 1 not at- 
tainable by idle wishes. 

1 9 15 5 

James 1 or 3 John 1 has 1 gone away to-day. 

2 4 5 9 4 5 

Either 3 thou 1 (art 1 ) or 3 I 1 am 1 to blame. 

JS3T As the verb, when disjunctively considered, is re- 
ferred to the nominatives taken separately ; so one of the 
nominatives is the subject of the verb expressed, and the rest 
nominative to separate verbs understood. The conjunctions 
connect the clauses, and so, form a compound sentence, but 
each clause, considered apart, is a simple sentence, and must 
have its complement either expressed or understood. 



238 .ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule IV. 

1 5 

The American nation 1 is 1 great and generous. 

15 5 4 

The company 1 is 1 assembled. It is 1 composed of persons 
possessing very different sentiments. 

l t . 5 

A herd 1 of cattle, peacefully grazing, affords 1 a pleasing 
sight. 

5 

The regiment 1 is 1 composed of a thousand men. 

1 5 

The crowd 1 was 1 so great that the judges with difficulty 

4 

made their way through it. 5 

I 5 4 5 

The flock, 1 and not the fleece, is, 1 or it 5 ought 1 to be, the 
i 
object 4 *of the shepherd's care. 

Jigr This is an important rule, and the pupil should see that 
he understands it before he leaves it. It is partly explained by 
Rule 5, for this reason the 5 is placed after the pronoun. In 
all cases where a figure is placed after a word in the line, you 
may be sure the Rule denoted by the figure has a tendency to 
explain, or dispose of the word so denoted. The 2d, 3d, and 
4th Rules are only modifications of Rule 1 . The verb must 
agree, <&c. 

Rule V. 

4 5 

The man who 5 is 1 faithfully attached to religion, may be 
relied on with confidence. 

14 3. 1 

The vices which 5 we should especially avoid, are those 

4 5 

which 5 most easily beset 1 us. 
i 
Take handfulls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses 

4 

sprinkle them 5 towards heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and 

4 

they 5 shall become small dust. 

jftiT This Rule should be strictly observed in the parsing of 
every pronoun, the pupil should be sure that he knows the pre- 
cise noun for which the personal pronoun stands ; and also the 
very word, whether it be a noun, pronoun, or clause of a sen- 
tence taken as a noun, for which the relative pronoun stands, 



SYNTAX THE RULES ILLUSTRATED. 2£9 

or more properly, to which the relative refers ; for, by refering 
the relative to its antecedent, we can tell its number and 
person, and, if the relative be a nominative, give it a verb 
agreeably to Rule 1. 

Rule VI. 

4 4 5 5 5 

They 1 who 6 are 1 born in high stations, are 1 not always happy. 

4 

Our parents and teachers are the persons whom 6 we ought, 
in a particular manner, to respect. 

4 5 5 

If our friend is in trouble, we, whom 6 he knows and loves, 
may console him. 

8 4 

This is the man to whom 6 I gave the book. 

J3T* By a strict observance of this Rule, the pupil may 
always know the case of the relative pronoun. A knowledge 
of this Rule is particularly essential in order properly to dis- 
pose of the compound relatives, what, whatever, whoever, &c. 

Rule VII. 

4 X 4 5 

Thou 1 art the man 1 / who 5 has 1 improved his privileges, 

4 5 6 

and who 5 will 1 reap the reward. 

4 6 14 5 4 

I 1 am 1 the person 1 ^ who 5 owns 1 a fault committed, and who 5 

6 

disdains 1 to conceal it by falsehood. (See Rule 7, <fyc.) 
Rule VIII. 

3 1 

That 8 sort of pleasure weakens and debases the mind. 

3 1 3 1 

Even in these 8 times there are many 8 persons who, from dis- 
3 l t 3 

interested 8 motives, are solicitous 8 to promote the happiness of 
others. (See the 2d Clause of Rule 8.) 

Rule IX. 

2 12 1 

The 9 restless, discontented person, is not a 9 good friend, 

•2 1 2 1 

a 9 good neighbor, or a good subject, 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 3. 1 2 3. 1 2 3. 1 

The 9 young, the 9 healthy, and the 9 prosperous should not 
presume on their advantages. 
(See Rule 9 and Notes.) 

Rule X. 
11 11 

The scholar's 10 diligence will secure the tutor's 10 appro- 
bation. 

l j 

The good parent's 1 ° greatest joy is to see his children 
wise and virtuous. 

1 4 3. 1 1 4 

That book is yours j 1 ° this (book) is mine. 1 ° 

14 4 4 

The slate is his, 1 ° or it is hers. 1 °* 
(See 10th Rule and Notes.) 

Rule XI. 

.64 64 

Wisdom and virtue enoble us ; l l vice and folly debase us. 1 1 

4 6 5 4 

Whom 1 1 can we so justly love, as (we love) them 1 1 who 

5 4 

have endeavored to make us 1 1 wise and happy. (See Rule 20, 
as, than, and but, in the Questions and Answers.) 

5 6 

Ye have heard that it hath been said, thou shalt love 

. 1 5 1 

thy neighbor, 1 1 and hate thine enemy ; l l but I say unto you, 

6 1 6 4 5 4 5 3. J 

love your enemies, 1 * bless them 1 1 that curse you, 1 1 do good 1 1 

5 4 

to them that hate you, 1 1 and pray for them which despitefully 

6 4 5 4 

use you 1 1 and persecute you. 1 1 

(See Rule 11 and Notes, and see also the order of parsing 
a transitive verb.) 

Rule XII. 

5 8 5 6 

When a person has nothing to do, la he is almost always 

6 8 6 

tempted to do 1 2 wrong. 

* The pronoun hers in the last example is not governed in the posses- 
sive case by the pronoun it, for pronouns do not govern pronouns ; but 
hers is governed by the noun slate, previously expressed; for it, in this 
construction, means the slate. See Declension of rronouns. 



SYNTAX THE RULES ILLUSTRATED. 241 

6 5 13 5 5 8 

We need not urge 1 2 Charles to do 1 - good ; lie loves to 
do 1 2 acts of benevolence. 

5 5 

We dare not leave 1 2 our studies without permission. 

S^r It should always be shown what the infinitive depends 
upon for its sense of action, passion, or being ; and also the 
verb governing, or controlling it, in regard to the expressing or 
the suppressing of the preposition to, should be shown. See 
Rule 12 and Notes. 

Rule XIII. 

5 

The business is at last completed, but long ago I intended 

8 5 

to finish it. 1 3 

5 8 5 

I expected to see 1 3 him before I left home. 

5 5 5 

The misfortune did happen, but we early hoped and en- 

5 8 5 

deavored to prevent 1 3 it. 

8 5 5 5 5 

To have been censured 1 3 by so judicious a friend, would 

5 5 

have greatly discouraged me. 
See Rule 13 and Notes. 

Rule XIV. 

6 6 4 

Having early disgraced 1 himself, 14 he became mean and 
dissipated. 

6 _ 4 

Expecting 1 us 1 4 soon, they were not much alarmed. 

6 < 4 

Knowing 1 him 1 4 to be my superior, 1 ^ I cheerfully submitted. 
See Rule 14 and Notes, 

Rule XV. 

5 7 

We should always 1 5 prepare for the worst, and hope for 
the best. 

7 6 8 

A young man so 1 5 learned and virtuous, promises to be a 

7 3 

very 1 s useful member of society. 
11 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7&9 5 5 7 5 

When 15 our virtuous friends die, they are not 15 lost for- 

7 7 

ever ; l 5 they are only 1 5 gone before us to a happier world. 
See Ilule 15 and Notes. 

Rule XVI. 

9 9 

Neither threatenings nor any promises could make him vio- 
late the truth. 

7 . . 3 
Charles is not insincere, therefore we may trust him. 

See Rule 16 and Notes. 

Rule XYII. 

8 4 

From whom 1 7 was that information received? 

8 4 

To whom 1 7 do that fine house, and those fine gardens 
belong? 

8 1 8 1 

He was a man of sorrows, 1 7 and acquainted with grief. 1 7 

8 13 1 8 1 

He went from Nashville 1 7 to New Orleans, 1 7 by steamboat, 1 7 

8 1 

in five days. 1 7 

J2P The antecedent term of the relation is the word in 
italics. See Preposition, Ques. and Ans. ; Adjuncts, Logical 
Parsing, and Rule 17 and Notes. 

Rule XYIII. 

4 9 4 

He 1 and 1 8 I 1 commenced our studies at the same time. 

9 4 5 9 4 

If 19 we 1 contend 1 about trifles, and 18 (if 19 we 1 ) vio- 
lently maintain 1 our opinions, we shall gain but few friends. 

J3P This Rule is merely a guide to the moods and tenses 
of verbs, and to the cases of nouns and pronouns, coming 
after a conjunction expressed or understood. It is not" always 
the case that the same mood or tense, or the same case of a 
noun or pronoun, that goes before the verb, also comes after 
it : to this there are many exceptions ; but, as to the exceptions, 
when it becomes necessary to introduce, after the conjunction, 
a mood, tense or case, differing from that which goes before 



SYNTAX THE RULES ILLUSTRATED. 243 

the conjunction, no ellipsis should be allowed ; that is, the 
mood, tense, or case, after the conjunction, should be sufficiently 
expressive, so as to leave no doubt, or ambiguity, as to the in- 
tention of the writer or speaker. The want of conformity to 
this Rule, often subjects us to the unpleasant task of interpret- 
ing to others, what the simplicity of the language requires to 
be plain and intelligible ; or it leaves our language with a 
double meaning, fraught with at least two evils, that of misre- 
presenting our own views, and that of a tendency to deceive ; 
thus, being at the mercy of others, the sentence is capable of 
being distorted from the sense and meaning which we intended. 
(See Rules 18 and 20, and Notes.) 

Rule XIX. 

9 5 

Though 1 9 James and myself are rivals, we do not cease to 
be friends. 

9 5 

If 1 9 Charles acquire knowledge, good manners, and virtue, 

he will be esteemed. 

9 i 

William is respected, because 1 9 he is 1 upright and obliging. 

9 5 

If 1 9 he 1 were 1 good, he would be happy. 

9 4 6 9 

If 1 9 I 1 see 1 your friend on this occasion, I will do as 1 9 you 
request me. 

9 4 5 9 5 5 

Though 19 he 1 slay* me, yet 19 will I 1 trust 1 him. 
(See Rule 19, and Notes.) 

Rule XX. 

7 9 4 

These persons are abundantly more oppressed than 2 ° we 1 

5 

are. 1 

7 9 4 5 

Though I am not so good a scholar as 2 ° he 1 is, 1 I am, per- 

7 9 4 5 

haps, not less attentive to study than 2 ° he 1 (is. 1 ) 

7 3 9 15 

John is a far better reader than 2 ° James 1 (is 1 ;) yet, it 
seems that James has a far better knowledge of the grammar 

9 15 

than 20 John 1 (has. 1 ) 

(See Rules 18 and 20, and Notes.) 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Rule XXI. 

8 8 

Charles was a man of knowledge, (of) learning, and (of) 
politeness. 

4 5 

In our travels, we saw much to approve, and (we 1 saw 1 ) 
much to condemn. 

From Nashville, he went to Washington, from Washington, 

4 5 4 5 

(he 1 went 1 ) to Philadelphia, from Philadelphia (he 1 went 1 ) 

4 5 

to New York, from New York, (he 1 went 1 ) to Charleston, 

4 5 

thence (he 1 returned 1 ) home. 

J3T The ellipses is included in parentheses. 

Moderate ellipsis is allowable ; but when it is immoderate, 
the sense is obscured, and of course, the meaning doubtful. 
Be careful, therefore, to give such fullness to the expression as 
will render the meaning clear and concise. 

The best rule for supplying the ellipsis, is, to consider, from 
the context, what the sense necessarily requires ; and supply 
words naturally, in relation with those already expressed. 
Often it is necessary to transpose the parts of a sentence, to 
show the relation. (See Rules 18 and 20, and Notes.) 

Rule XXII. 

5 5 1 1^ 

The book is improved by many useful corrections, alterations, 
and additions. 

7 

She is more talkative and lively than her brother (is, ) but 

7 7 7 t 7 9 

(she is) not so well informed, nor so uniformly cheerful, (as 
he is.) 

JSP These sentences are correct, and the same ideas might 
be expressed in other phraseology, and still be correct; yet 
there are ways of attempted expression in which they 
would not be correctly expressed. For instance, * ' The book 
has undergone many useful corrections, alterations, and ad- 
ditions.'' This I would call a jumble ; or a marring of the per- 
spicuity and harmony the rule is designed to teach. The 
verb has undergone conflicts with the idea of additions, and pro- 
duces confusion of ideas ; that of undergoing, and that of adding. 
How can a booh, or any thing else undergo an addition ? It 



SYNTAX THE RULES ILLUSTRATED. 245 

may undergo a revisal, in which other matter may be added to 
it. It might also undergo a correction, or an alteration. To 
say that "Many corrections, alterations and additions have been 
made to the work," &c, would be as confused a jumbling of 
terms, as that in regard to the verb has undergone ; for though 
we may make an addition, we cannot make an alteration; this 
signifies to take apart, or to 'pieces, to alter that already made ; 
that (to make,) means to put together, or to build up. The verb 
is improved, as in the example, agrees with the entire sentence, 
and is not a violation of concord. 

In the other sentence, the words marked with figures are 
words of comparison, and are properly arranged to carry out 
and show the comparison intended. There are two persons or 
things brought into comparison, and the words, if thrown 
into almost any other connection, would not as clearly show 
the comparison ; as, for instance, " She is more talkative and 
lively, but not so uniformly cheerful as her brother." This con- 
struction, though frequently met with, is by no means correct ; 
in it, there is a confused, and consequently an imperfect notion 
of comparison, but it is not properly carried on, and as a con- 
sequence, the mind of the reader is left in suspense, and the 
meaning is rather guessed at, than absolutely known. There 
is a comparison made in the latter part of the sentence, but 
none in the former part of it : the adverb more in the former 
part, will not comport with the conjunction as, which is also a 
word of comparison, connecting the clauses, and designed to 
carry out the comparison indicated by the adverb more, 
as introduced in the former part of the sentence ; more requires 
than to follow it, and so requires as to follow it. The sentence 
is too elliptical, and amounts to violation of both concord and 
government, as taught in the 2 2d Rule. 

See Application of the Rules of Syntax. 

As the pupil cannot become too well acquainted with the 
Rules of Syntax, it would be well for him to return and parse, 
several times over, the foregoing exercises ; especially those in 
section 5, as they are expressly designed to illustrate the force 
and meaning of the rules. If he obtain a promptness, (readi- 
ness, quickness,) in the application of the Rules of Syntax, he 
can hardly fail, soon also, to obtain a correct and critical know- 
ledge of the analysis of the language. In all cases of diffi- 
culty as to the analysis of a word, sentence, or phrase, he 
should refer to the Questions and Answers, as directed in the 
General Mule, p. 223. 



£46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As it is thought the foregoing exercises are sufficiently co- 
pious and inductive to initiate the learner into the order and 
business of parsing, and to prepare him with an aptness, con- 
ducive to his successful advancement in the science of gram- 
matical analysis, the following exercises will only be noted by 
the figures denoting the Rules of Syntax, and only on the 
occurrence of such words and phrases as may be likely to 
present embarrassment ; upon which, however, he should 
carefully reflect, and, if necessary, refer to some preceding 
example, so that in the recurrence of words, &c, of similar 
import, he may have them properly at his command. 

By way of precaution, I would here observe, that the pupil 
should not allow himself too much latitude in parsing ; no two 
ways of parsing any thing are correct, unless the meaning be 
identically the same in both. All phrases should be parsed, 
if it can be done according to the Rules of Syntax ; and if 
they do not come within the purview of these rules, their 
qualifying influences should be sought for, and they disposed 
of accordingly. 

See Phrases ; and Abridged Propositions. 

SECTION VI. 
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

Dissimulation 1 in youth is 1 the forerunner 1 / of perfidy in 
old age. Its 5 first 8 appearance 1 is 1 the 9 fatal 8 omen— of 
growing 8 depravity 1 7 and 1 8 future 8 shame. 1 7 

If 1 9 we 1 possess 1 not the power 1 1 of self-government, 1 7 we 1 
shall be 1 the 9 prey 1 -/ to every 8 loose 8 inclination 17 that 5 
chances 1 to arise. 12 

Pampered 1 by continual indulgence, all our passions will 
become mutinous and headstrong. Desire, 1 not reason, will 
become 1 the ruling principle 1 ^ of our conduct. 

Absurdly 1 5 we 1 spend 1 our 8 time 1 * in contending 1 about 
the trifles 1 7 of a day, while 1 5 we 1 ought 1 to be preparing for 
a 9 higher existence. 17 

How little do they 1 know 1 of the true happiness 1 7 of life, 
who 5 are strangers 1 ^ to that 8 intercourse of good offices 1 7 
and kind affections, 1 7 which, 6 by a pleasing 8 charm, 1 7 attaches 
men to one another, and circulates 1 rational enjoyment 1 1 from 
heart to heart ! 

If 19 we 1 view 1 ourselves, 11 with all 8 our 8 imperfections 17 
and failings, 1 7 in a just light, we 1 shall rather 1 5 be surprised 1 



SYNTAX EXERCISES IN PARSING. 247 

at our enjoying 1 so many good things, 1 4 than be discontented, 
because 18 there 15 are 1 any 1 which 6 we 1 want. 1 

True cheerfulness 1 makes 1 a man 11 happy 8 in himself, and 
promotes 1 the happiness 1 1 of all 1 7 around him. 1 7 It 5 is the 
clear 8 and calm 8 sunshine 1 ^ of the mind illuminated 1 by piety 
and virtue. 1 7 

Wherever 1 5 views 1 of interest, and prospects 1 of return, 
mingle 1 with the feelings of affection, 17 sensibility 1 acts 1 an 
imperfect part, 1 1 and entitles 1 us 1 1 to small share of commen- 
dation. 

Let 1 not your expectations 1 x from the years that are to 
come, rise 12 too high; 15 and your disappointments will be 
fewer, and 1 8 more 1 5 easily 1 5 supported. 

To live long,i- ought 1 not to be our favorite wish,y so much 
as to live well.\- By continuing 1 too 15 long 15 on earth, we 1 
might only live 1 to witness a greater number 1 1 of melancholy 
scenes, and to expose ourselves to a wider compass of human 
woe. 

How many 1 pass 1 away some 1 1 of the most valuable years 
of their lives, tossed in a whirlpool of ivhat (that 17 which 6 ) 
cannot be called 1 pleasure, y so much as mere giddiness and 
folly ! 

Look 1 around you with attentive eye, and weigh 1 charac- 
ters 1 l well, before you 1 connect 1 yourselves 1 1 too closely with 
any 1 7 who 5 court your society. 

The true honor 1 of man consists 1 not in the multitude 1 7 
of riches, 1 7 or in the elevation of rank ; experience 1 shows, 1 
that these 1 may be possessed 1 by the worthless, 1 7 as well as 1 8 
the deserving. 1 7 

Beauty 1 of form has often 15 betrayed 1 its possessor. 11 
The 9 flower 1 is easily blasted. 1 It 5 is short-lived 8 at, best ; 
and trifling, at any rate, in comparison with the higher 8 and 
more lasting 8 beauties 1 7 of the mind. 

A contented 8 temper 1 opens 1 a clear 8 sky 11 and brightens 1 
every 8 object 1 around us. 1 7 It 5 is 1 in the sullen 8 and dark 8 
shade 17 of discontent, that noxious passions, 1 like 15 (unto) 
venomous 8 animals, 17 breed 1 and 1 8 prey 1 upon the heart. 17 

Thousands 1 whom 6 indolence 1 has sunk 1 into contemptible 
obscurity, 17 might have come 1 forward to usefulness and 1 8 
honor, if 1 9 idleness 1 had not frustrated 1 the effects 1 * of all 
their powers. 1 7 

Sloth 1 is 1 like (unto) the slowly -flowing 8 putrid 8 stream, 17 
which 6 stagnates 1 in the marsh, 17 breeds 1 venomous ani- 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mals, 11 and 18 poisonous plants; 11 and 18 infects, with pesti- 
lential vapors, 17 the 9 whole 8 country 11 around it. 1 7 

Disappointments 1 derange, 1 and 1 8 overcome 1 vulgar 8 
minds. 1 The 9 patient 1 and the 9 wise, 1 by a proper improve- 
ment, 17 frequently 15 make 1 them 11 contribute 12 to their 8 
high 8 advantage . l 7 

Whatever fortune 1 may rob 1 us 1 1 of, it 5 cannot take 1 away 
what (that 11 which 6 ) is 1 most valuable; (which 6 is 1 ) the 
peace Y of a good conscience, and the cheering 8 prospect y of a 
happy 8 conclusion 17 to all our trials 17 of life 17 in a 9 better 8 
world. 1 7 Whatever, in this sentence is equivalent to those 
things which, and divided and governed, thus : " Though 1 9 
fortune 1 may rob 1 us 11 of whatever (those 8 things 17 which 6 ) 
we 1 possess 1 here, 15 yet we 1 have 1 this 8 consolation, 11 that 
it 5 cannot take 1 away that, 1 * &c. 

Be (ye or you) not 1 s overcome 1 by the injuries 1 7 (which 1 7 ) 
you 1 meet 1 with, so as to pursue revenge ; l l ( — ) by the disas- 
ters 1 7 of life, so as to sink into despair; ( — ) by the 9 evil 8 
examples 1 7 of the world, so as to follow them 1 1 into sin ; (but) 
overcome 1 injuries 11 by forgiveness; 17 ( — ) disasters, 11 by 
fortitude; 17 ( — ) evil 8 example, 11 by firmness 17 of princi- 
ple. 1 7 See note first, page 223. 

Sobriety 1 of mind is 1 oney of those virtues 17 which 6 the 
present 8 condition 1 of human 8 life 17 strongly 15 inculcates. 1 
The 9 uncertainty 1 of its enjoyments checks 1 presumption; 11 
the multiplicity 1 of its dangers demands 1 perpetual 8 caution. 1 * 
Moderation, 1 vigilance, 1 and self-government, 1 are 1 duties 1 ^ 
incumbent 8 on all, 17 but ( — ) especially ( — ) on such 17 as 20 
(those 1 are 1 who 6 ) are beginning 1 the 9 journey 1 1 of life. 17 

The charms 1 and 2 comforts 1 of virtue 1 7 are 1 inexpressible; 8 
and (they 1 ) can only 1 5 be justly 15 conceived 1 by those 17 
who 6 possess 1 her. 11 The 9 consciousness 1 of Divine 8 appro- 
bation 17 and 18 support, 17 and 2 the 9 steady 8 hope 1 of future 8 
happiness, 17 communicate 1 a 9 peace 11 and 18 joy, 11 to which 5 
all 8 the 9 delights 1 of the world bear 1 no 8 resemblance. 11 

If 19 we 1 knew 1 how much the 9 pleasures 1 of this fife 17 de- 
ceive 1 and 1 8 betray 1 their 8 unhappy 8 votaries ; l 1 and 1 3 (if 
we 1 ) reflected 1 on the disappointments 1 7 in the pursuit, 1 7 ( — ) 
the dissatisfaction 17 in enjoyment, 17 or ( — ) the uncertainty 1 7 
of possession 17 which 6 everywhere 15 attends 1 them, 11 we 1 
should cease 1 to be enamored 12 with those 8 brittle 8 and tran- 
sient 8 joys, 1 7 and (we 1 should) wisely 15 fix 1 our 8 hearts 11 



SYNTAX DIRECTIONS FOR EXERCISES IN rOETRT. 249 

on those 8 virtuous 8 attainments 17 which 1 the 9 world 1 can 
neither 1 8 give 1 nor 1 8 take 1 away. 1 5 

SECTION VII. 

DIRECTIONS FOR EXERCISES IN POETRY. 

1 . In parsing verse, several tilings are to be observed : 
First, the sentences must be transposed, if it be necessary, or 
understood as transposed ; second, they must be understood 
as parsed or analyzed, in order to be transposed ; and third, 
they must be parsed or analyzed, in order to be understood and 
transposed. So it seems that poetry must be understood, in 
order to be parsed, and it must be parsed, to be understood, 
and so it is, even sometimes in prose. This command of the 
sense being obtained, transposing, or changing poetry into prose, 
becomes an easy task. 

Many rules have been invented to teach the art of transpos- 
ing poetry, but not one that I have ever seen supercedes the 
one here alluded to, or sheds a ray of light upon the subject. 
If the pupil has been taught the order of "prose, he already 
knows, very well, that poetry, to be transposed, must assume 
that order ; and, in the management of it, the sense and gram- 
matical arrangement are his only reliable guides. 

It is important that the pupil understand well the nature of 
adjuncts formed by prepositions ; unless he understand this, he 
will do but a poor business in transposing. Therefore, I will 
here say to the learner, if you have not a good knowledge of the 
terms of relation, as shown by the preposition, and the influence 
of the adjuncts so formed, you will gain both time and informa- 
tion by returning to the preceding parts of this work and exa- 
mining all that is said upon the subject. For which see Adverbs, 
Prepositions, Abridged Propositions, Adjuncts, Logical Pars- 
ing, and also S. S. Green's Analysis of the English Language.* 

The following may, however, serve as useful guides in the 
transposition of either prose or poetry : 

The antecedent term, of relation is always modified by the pre- 
position and its regimen together, called the adjunct of the an- 
tecedent term ; seek, therefore, for the modifying influence of the 
adjunct ; this influence you will find to be identical with that 

* I here refer to Green's Analysis, because it has but recently come 
into my hands ; it treats handsomely of the elementary principles of the 
language, and would certainly be a valuable aid in the hands of the 
learner. 



21)0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of an adjective, or of an adverb ; adjectives, you very well know, 
qualify nothing but nouns ; and adverbs qualify verbs, partici- 
ples, adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs. It is easy, there- 
fore, to tell whether the adjunct possesses an adjective or an 
adverbial element ; so, as the adjunct qualifies its antecedent term, 
as an adjective, or an adverb would do, the antecedent term of 
relation is known by its being qualified, in some sense, by the 
adjunct. Whatever the adjunct qualifies, is the antecedent term 
of relation shown by the preposition forming the adjunct. 

Adverbs may be made to supply the place of adjuncts, and 
adjuncts may be made to supply the place of adverbs ; as when, 
for at which time ; or for two adjuncts, as, " I saw him when he 
came ;" that is, ' l I saw him at the time at which he came.'* 
"I found it where he left it;" i. e., at the place at which. 
" Slowly," for in a sloiv manner ; " Speedily," for in a speedy 
manner, (fee. Adjectives may also be converted into adjuncts, 
and adjuncts into adjectives; as, "a golden crown/' for a 
crown of gold ; "an iron red," for a rod of iron; "a brazen 
image," for an image of brass, &c. 

The interrogative adverbs When? Where? How? and Why? 
and others similar, require an adverbial element of one word, 
or several, to answer them. The interrogatives, What cha- 
racter? What quality? What kind? and others similar, require 
an adjective element, in one word or several, to answer 
them. In parsing, therefore, consider the elementary principle 
involved, in the adjunct, and put the above or similar ques- 
tions ; and, as a consequence, in most cases the answer, being 
the adjunct itself, will direct you to the antecedent term ; then 
transpose accordingly as with an adjective, or an adverb ; and 
at the same time, be sure to know whether the qualifying influ- 
ence of the adjunct belong to the subject or to the predicate, and 
arrange it accordingly. Be not discouraged in the use of the 
adjuncts, for a little experience will soon render you expert in 
their application. 

2. In some instances it is difficult for the learner to deter- 
mine which of two or more nouns or pronouns is the nomina- 
tive to the verb ; the sense not being sufficiently intelligible to 
him. In regard to this, however, there is a principle that may 
be reduced to 

Rule. 
In all sentences wherein ambiguity is liable to 
arise, or in which the sense is not otherwise clear 



DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING IN POETRY. 251 

and obvious, the nominative should resume its pro- 
per place, which is immediately before the verb to 
which it is nominative. 

All writers who understand the structure of language, write 
in conformity with this principle ; and it is the reader's province 
to interpret accordingly ; and, if necessary, to transpose sen- 
tences either in part or in whole, and supply the ellipsis. 

An instance in which the above rule is applicable, is found 
in the verses entitled " The Picture of a Good Man" by 
Young, verse 6, to wit : 

"A cover'd heart 11 their character 1 defends. 7 ' 1 

From a close reading, the context also shows this construc- 
tion to be the intention of the writer. 

Also verses by Pope, On Pride ; to wit : 

" What the weak head with strongest bias rules is pride." 

Here the sense is very apparent, and it is no matter where 
the nominative may be placed ; the sense is, That 1 which 6 
rules 1 the 9 weak 8 head 1 x with strongest 8 bias, 17 is 1 pride.— 
In regard to the verb rules, you may put the question, How? 
or, In what manner? The answer is, with strongest bias; 
showing the adjunct to possess an adverbial element, qualify- 
ing the verb rules, as the antecedent term of the relation 
shown by the preposition with. 

The transposition of the following verse, with the stricture 
upon it, may also induct the pupil somewhat into the art of 
transposing. 

The best rule for the transposition of poetry, is, to observe 
what the sense naturally requires. 

"What conscience dictates to be done, 

Or warns me not to do ; 
This teach me more than hell to shun, 

That more than heaven pursue." 

As we consider it right to ask, in prayer for tutelage, or 
guidance in those things which conscience dictates to be done ; 
and for the same in order to shun those things which con- 
science warns us not to do ; so we have the following natural 
transposition. 

Lord \\ Teach 1 thou 1 me 1 1 to pursue that 1 Y which 6 con- 
science 1 dictates 1 to be done, more ardently 15 than I, 1 in my 
weakness 17 and 18 blindness, without thy guidance, 17 would 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pursue 1 — the way 17 that 5 leads 1 to heaven ; and also teach 1 
thou 1 me 11 to shun that 11 which 6 conscience 1 warns 1 me 11 
not to do, with more caution 1 7 and x 8 vigilance than I, 1 in my 
imbecility, would shun — the way 1 1 that 5 leads 1 to hell. 1 7 

The above seems to be a concise and tolerably full expres- 
sion of what is intended to be asked for in the supplication ; 
from which we learn that it often becomes necessary to 
supply words, and even whole sentences, as well as to dis- 
pense with those repetitions that would render the prose read- 
ing awkward and clumsy. The word that, in the fourth line of the 
verse, is in apposition with the antecedent part of the word 
what in the first line ; the word this in the third line, is in ap- 
position with the antecedent part of the word what, under- 
stood after or in the second line ; and consequently, the two 
words this and that should be dispensed with, as is done in the 
transposition. (See Pleonasm.) 

If a difficulty or a doubt arises in regard to parsing, or 
transposing, frame a question suitable to the subject, and refer to 
the Questions and Answers. (See General Rule, Page 223. ) 

See also Figures of Etymology. 
" " " Syntax, 

" " " " Rhetoric; 
And the System of Logical Parsing throughout. 

And so soon as you begin to understand, to some tolerable 
extent, the construction of sentences, you should study well 
the Rules of Punctuation, and the other marks used in writing ; 
as a knowledge of these will handsomely compensate you for 
the time employed in obtaining it. 



PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 

God moves in a mysterious way, 

His wonders to perform ; 
He plants his footsteps in the sea, 

And rides upon the storm. 

See pp. 154, 5, 6, and observe a similar order both in Prose 
and in Poetry. 

EDUCATION. 

'Tis education (that) forms the common mind ; 

Just as the twig is bent, the tree's inclined, (tree is inclined.) 



SYNTAX PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 253 

THE GOODNESS OF PROVIDENCE. 

1 The Lord 1 my pasture 1 1 shall prepare, 1 
And feed me with a shepherd's care ; 
His presence 1 shall my wants 1 1 supply, 1 
And guard me with a watchful eye ; 
My noon-day walks 11 he 1 shall attend, 1 
And 1 8 all my midnight hours 1 x defend. 1 

2 When in the sultry glebe I faint, 
Or on the thirsty mountains pant ; 
To fertile vales 17 and dewy meads, 17 

My weary 8 wandering 8 steps 1 1 he 1 leads j 1 
Where peaceful rivers, 1 soft and slow, 1 5 
Amid the verdant landscape flow. 1 

3 Tho' in the paths of death I tread, 
With glooming horrors overspread ; 
My steadfast heart 1 shall fear 1 no ill, 1 l 
For thou, 1 Lord,^ art 1 with me still ; l 5 
Thy friendly crook 1 shall give 1 me 17 aid, 11 
And guide me through the dreadful shade. 

4 Tho' 1 9 in a bare and rugged way, 
Through devious lonely wilds I 1 stray ; l 
Thy bounty 1 shall my pains 11 beguile, 1 
The barren wilderness 1 shall smile, 1 

With sudden greens 1 7 and herbage 1 7 crown , d, 1 
And streams 1 shall murmur 1 all around. 1 5 

VIRTUE THE GUARDIAN OF YOUTH. 

Down the smooth stream 1 7 of life the strippling 1 darts, 1 
Gay 8 as the morn ; 2 ° bright glows 1 the vernal sky, 1 
Hope 1 swells 1 his sails, 1 1 and passion 1 steers 1 his course. 11 
Safe 15 glides 1 his little bark l along the shore, 17 
Where 1 Virtue 1 takes 1 her stand : l 1 but if 1 9 too far 15 
He launches forth 1 5 beyond discretion's 1 ° mark, 1 7 
Sudden 15 the tempest 1 scowls, 1 the surges 1 roar, 1 
Blot 1 his fair day, 11 and plunge 1 him 11 in the deep, 17 

GRATITUDE. 

1 When all thy mercies, l l my God !^- 
My rising soul 1 surveys, 1 
Transported* with the view 1 7 I'm lost 
In wonder, love, and praise. 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

2 how shall words 1 with equal warmth, 1 7 

The gratitude 11 declare, 1 
That 5 glows 1 within my ravished heart, 17 
But thou 1 canst read 1 it 1 1 there. 

3 Thy providence 1 my life 1 1 sustained, 1 

And 1 8 all my wants 1 1 redressed, 1 
When in the silent womb 1 7 I 1 lay, 1 
And 1 8 hung 1 upon the breast. 1 7 

4 To all my weak complaints 1 7 and 1 8 cries, 

Thy mercy 1 lent 1 an ear, 11 
Ere yet my feeble thoughts 1 had learned, 1 
To form 1 2 themselves in prayer. 1 7 

5 Unnumber'd 8 comforts 1 1 to my soul 

Thy tender care 1 bestowed, 1 
Before my infant 1 heart conceiv'd 1 
From whom those 8 comforts 1 flow'd. 1 

6 When, in the slip'ry paths of youth, 

With heedless steps 17 I 1 ran, 1 
Thine 10 arm, 1 unseen, 8 convey'd 1 me 11 safe, 15 * 
And 18 led 1 me 11 up 15 toman. 17 

7 Through hidden dangers, 17 toils and 18 deaths, 

It 5 gently cleared 1 my 8 way; 11 
And 1 8 through the pleasing snares 1 7 of vice, 
More 1 5 to be feared than 1 8 they. 2 ° 

8 When worn 1 with sickness, oft 1 5 has thou, 1 

With health 17 renewed 1 my face; 11 
And 1 8 when in sins and sorrows sunk, 1 

Revived 1 my soul 1 1 with grace. 1 7 
8 Thy 8 bounteous 8 hand 1 with worldly bliss, 

Has made 1 my cup 11 run 12 o'er ; 15 
And, in a kind and faithful 8 friend, 17 

Has doubled 1 all 8 my 8 store. 11 
10 Ten thousand thousand 8 precious 8 gifts, 1 

My daily 8 thanks 1 x employ ; l 
Nor is 1 the least y a cheerful heart, 1 

That 5 tastes 1 these 8 gifts 1 1 with joy. 

* In poetry, adjectives are often used for adverbs; it is the case with 
the word safe above, and by adding ly to it, we convert it into an adverb, 
because it is used, in this place, to qualify the verb conveyed. 

The pupil should study well the Figures of Etymology and Syntax, 
also the Figures of Rhetoric ; he will also derive much useful informa- 
tion by carefully examining the Poetic License. 



SYNTAX PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 5255 

11 Through every 8 period of my life, 

Thy goodness 1 1 I'll pursue, 1 
And 1 8 after death in distant worlds, 
The glorious 8 theme 1 1 renew. 1 

12 When nature 1 fails, 1 and day 1 and 2 night 

Divide i thy works 1 1 no more, 1 5 * 
My 8 ever 15 grateful 8 heart, 1 Lordly 
Thy mercy 1 1 shall adore. 1 

13 Through all 8 eternity, 17 to thee, 

A 9 joyful 8 song 1 1 I'll raise ; l 
For ! eternity's too 15 short, 8 

To utter all thy praise. 1 x — Addison. 

VIRTUOUS ELEVATION. 

The mind 1 that 6 would be 1 happy, 8 must be 1 great ; 8 
Great 8 in its wishes ; great 8 in its surveys. 
Extended 8 views, 1 a narrow 8 mind 11 extend. 1 

HOPE. 

Hope, 1 of all the passions, most befriends 1 us 1 1 here ; l 5 
Passions 1 of prouder name befriend 1 us 11 less. 15 
Joy 1 has 1 her tears, 11 and transport 1 has 1 her death ; 11 
Hope, 1 like (unto) a cordial, 17 innocent, 8 though strong, 8 
Man's 1 ° heart 1 1 at once inspires 1 and serenes. 1 

THE TEAR OF SYMPATHY. 

No 3 radiant 8 pearl 1 which 6 crested fortune 1 wears, 1 
No 8 gem, 1 that 6 twinkling 1 hangs 1 from beauty's ears, 17 
Nor the bright stars, 1 which 6 night's 1 ° blue arch 1 1 adorn, 1 
Nor rising 8 suns 1 that 6 gild 1 the vernal morn, 11 
Shine 1 with such lustre as the tear 20 that 6 breaks, 1 
For other's woe, down virtue's manly cheeks. 17 

TRUE GREATNESS. 

Who 6 noble ends 1 1 by noble means obtains, 1 

Or failing, smiles 1 in exile or in chains, 

Like ( — ) good Aurelius, let 1 him 11 reign, 12 or 18 bleed 12 

Like ( — ) Socrates, that man 1 is 1 great 8 indeed. 1 5 

* No more is an adverbial phrase. That the pupil may more readily 
perceive the nature of phrases and adverbial conjunctions, they will be 
italicised occasionally; for their Etymological and Syntactical construc- 
tions, he must refer to the Questions and Answers, Abridged Proposi- 
tions, <fec , as per General Rule. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Transposed. 

That man 1 who 6 obtains 1 noble ends 1 1 by noble means, 
whether 1 9 he 1 reign like ( — ) good Aurelius, or 1 8 bleed like 
( — ) Socrates, is 1 great indeed; or that man 1 who, 6 failing 1 
to obtain noble ends 1 1 by noble means, smiles, 1 being in exile 
or in chains, is 1 great indeed. 1 5 See Rule 3d — Syntax. 

J£^~ The participial clause admits of this abridgement — 
failing so to do, which also gives the sense, and renders the 
reading smoother and more pleasant to the ear. See Abridged 
Propositions. 

SECRET VIRTUE. 

The private path, 1 the secret acts 1 of men, 

If noble, (are) far 15 the noblest y of their lives. 

SENSE AND MODESTY CONNECTED. 

Distrustful sense 1 with modest caution speaks ; l 

It 1 still looks 1 home(ward, 1 5 ) short excursions 1 1 makes ; l 

But rattling nonsense 1 in full volleys breaks. 1 

THE PRIZE OF VIRTUE. 

What nothing earthly gives, or can destroy, 
The soul's calm sunshine and the heartfelt joy, 
Is virtue's prize. 

Transposed. 

Virtue's prize 1 is that 1 -} which 6 no 8 earthly 8 thing 1 can give 1 
to us, or 1 8 take away from us ; it 1 is 1 the soul's 10 calm sun- 
shine y and the heartfelt joy.y 

TRUST IN PROVIDENCE RECOMMENDED. 

'Tis Providencey alone 8 (which 6 ) secures, 1 

In ev'ry change, both mine 1 ° and yours, 1 ° — 

Safety 1 consists 1 not 1 5 in escape 

From dangers of a frightful shape. 

An 9 earthquake 1 may be bid 1 to spare 12 

The man 1 Y that's strangled 1 by a hair. 

Fate 1 steals 1 along 15 with silent tread, (it 1 is) 

Found 1 oft'nest 15 in what least 1 5 we 1 dread; 1 (it 1 ) 

Frowns 1 in the storm with angry brow, 

But in the sunshine, (it) strikes 1 the blow. 11 



SYNTAX PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 257 

VIRTUOUS ACTIVITY. 

Seize, 1 mortals !|- seize 1 the transient Lour; 11 
Improve 1 each moment 1 1 as it flies ; 
Life's a short summer 1 ^ — man 1 a flower ;Y 
He dies — alas ! — how soon he dies ! 

FAME. 

All fame 1 is 1 foreign, 8 but (it is) of true desert ; (it) 

Plays 1 round the head, 1 7 but (it) comes 1 not near the heart. 

One self-approving hour, 1 whole years 11 outweighs 1 

Of stupid starers, or of loud huzzas ; 

And more true joy 1 x Marcellus 1 exiled feels, 1 

Than Caesar 2 ° with a Senate at his heels. 

SOLITUDE. 

O Solitude I 1 divine retreat l^ 

Choice^- of the prudent ! envy A- of the great ! 

By thy pure stream, or in thy waving shade, 

We 1 court 1 fair Wisdom, 1 x that celestial maid : y * 

The genuine offspring 1 ^ of her loved embrace, 

(Strangers to earth) are 1 innocence 1 and peace. 1 

Then from the ways of men laid safe 1 5 ashore, 1 5 

We 1 smile 1 to hear the distant tempest roar ; l 2 

Then, blessed with health, with business unperplexed, 

This life 1 1 we 1 relish, 1 and insure 1 the next. 11 

MODERATE VIEWS AND AIMS RECOMMENDED. 

With passions unruffled, 8 untainted 8 with pride, 

By reason my life 1 1 let me square ; l 2 
The wants 1 of my nature are cheaply supplied ; l 

And the rest 1 are 1 but 15 folly y and care.y 

* Mali is here in opposition with wisdom : the ellipsis (which is) being 
supplied, shows that maid is predicate nominative after is, the copula, con- 
necting it with the relative which representing the noun wisdom ; thus* 
wisdom, and maid are shown to mean the same thing ; (which is) " that 
celestial maid" is a relative clause, [an adjective element] descriptive of 
the noun wisdom. Supply the ellipsis, and we say ma d is nomina ive 
after the verb is by Note 4 under Rule 11. Without supplying the ellip- 
sis, we say the noun maid is in opposition with the noun wisdom Thus 
it is that the verb to be is a conductor to the cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns. The noun strangers is in apposition with innocence and peace ; 
transposed, thus, '• innocence and peace [which are or being] strangers to 
earth, are the genuine offspring of her loved embrace." Notice similar 
cases. 

11* 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

How vainly, through infinite trouble and strife, 

The many 1 their labors 1 1 employ, 1 
Since all 1 that 6 is 1 truly 1 5 delightful 8 in life, 

Is 1 what all, 1 if 19 they 1 please, 1 may enjoy. 1 

THE GOLDEN MIEN. 

He 1 that 6 holds fast 1 5 the golden mien, 1 x 
And lives 1 contentedly between 

The little 1 7 and 1 8 the great, 
Feels 1 not the wants 11 that 6 pinch 1 the poor, 11 
Nor plagues 1 1 that 6 haunt 1 the rich man's 1 ° door. 1 1 

Embittering all his state. 1 4 
The tallest pines 1 feel 1 most the power 1 1 
Of wint'ry blast ; the loftiest tow'r 1 

Comes 1 heaviest to the ground. 
The bolts 1 that 6 span the mountain's side, 1 * 
His cloud-capt 8 eminence 1 1 divide ; l 

And spread 1 the ruin 1 1 round. 1 5 

ATTACHMENT TO LIFE. 



• 1 1 



The tree 1 of deepest root is found, 1 

Least willing still to quit the ground : 
'Twas therefore said by ancient sages, 
That love 1 of life increas'd 1 with years, 

So much, that in our later stages, 

When pain 1 grows 1 sharp, 8 and sickness 1 rages, 1 
The greatest love 1 of life appears. l 

THE SECURITY OF VIRTUE. 

Let coward guilt, 1 with pallid fear, 

To shelt'ring caverns fly, 1 
And justly dread 1 the vengeful fate 1 1 

That 6 thunders 1 through the sky. 
Protected 1 by that hand, whose 1 ° law 1 1 

The thund'ring storms 1 obey, 1 
Intrepid virtue 1 smiles 1 secure, 8 

As in the blaze of day 

BENEFICENCE ITS OWN REWARD. 

My fortune 1 (for I'll mention all, 
And more than you dare tell) is 1 small ; 8 
Yet ev'ry friend 1 partakes 1 my store, 11 
And want 1 goes 1 smiling from my door* 



SYNTAX PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 259 

Will forty shillings 1 warm 1 the breast 1 l 
Of worth or industry distress 'd ? 
This sum 1 1 I 1 cheerfully impart ; l 
'Tis fourscore pleasure 1 ^ to my heart: 
And you 1 may make 1 by means like these 
Five talents 11 ten, 1 ^ whene'er you 1 please, 1 
'Tis true, my little purse 1 grows 1 light 8 ; 
But then I 1 sleep 1 so 1 5 sweet 1 5 at night ! 
This grand specific 1 will prevail, 1 
When all the doctor's 1 ° opiates 1 fail. 1 

VIRTUE THE BEST TREASURE. 

Virtue, 1 (which is) the strength 1 ^ and beauty 1 ^ of the soul, 

Is 1 the best gift 1 J of Heaven: a happiness l J 

That, 6 even above the smiles and frowns of fate, 

Exalts 1 great nature's favorites : l l a wealthy 

That 6 ne'er encumbers, 1 nor to baser hands 

Can be conferred. It is the only goody 

Man justly boasts of, or can call his own. 

Riches 1 are oft by gilt and baseness earn'd. 1 

But for one end, one much-neglected use 

Are riches worth our care ; 17 (for nature's wants 

Are few, and without opulence supplied ;) 

This noble end is to produce the soul ; 

To show the virtues in their fairest fight : 

And make humanity 1 x the minister 1 ^ 

Of bounteous Providence, 

(For worth, see Prepositions, Anomalies.) 

CONTEMPLATION. 

As yet 'tis midnight deep. The weary clouds, 1 
Slow 15 meeting, mingle 1 into solid gloom. 
Now, while the drowsy world 1 lies 1 lost 1 in sleep, 
Let me associate with the serious night, 
And 1 8 contemplation, her sedate compeer \ x ± 
Let me shake off the intrusive cares of day, 
And lay the meddling scenes all 8 aside. 1 5 
Where now, ye|- lying vanities^- of life ! 
Ye ever-tempting, ever-cheating train !^ 
Where are ye now ? and what is your amount ? 
Vexation, y disappointment, y and remorse. 1 ^ 1 
Sad sick'ning thought ! Y And yet, deluded man 1 (midst) 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A scene of crude disjointed visions past, 
And 1 8 broken slumbers, rises 1 still resolved, 
"With new flushed hopes, to run the giddy round. 1 1 

PLEASURE OF PIETY. 

A Deity 1 believed, 1 is 1 joy 1 ^ begun ; l 

A Deity ador'd, is joy advanc'd, 

A Deity belov'd, is joy matur'd. 

Each branch 1 of piety delight 1 1 inspires : l 

Faith builds a bridge from this world to the next, 

O'er death's dark gulf, and all its horror hides; 

Praise, 1 (which is) the sweet exhalation 1 ^ of our joy, 

That joy 1 1 exalts, 1 and makes 1 it 11 sweeter still ; x 5 

Prayer 1 ardent 8 opens 1 heaven, 1 1 lets down 1 5 a stream 1 x 

Of glory, on the consecrated hour 

Of man in audience with the Deity. 

NOTHING FORMED IN VAIN. 

1 Let no presuming, impious railer tax 
Creative wisdom, as if aught was formed 
In vain, or not for admirable ends. 
Shall little haughty ignorance pronounce, 
His works unwise, of which the smallest part 
Exceeds the narrow vision of her mind ? 

As if, upon a full proportioned dome, 
On swelling columns 1 7 heav'd, the pride ^ of art, 
A critic-fly, l whose feeble ray scarce spreads 
An inch around, 1 5 with blind presumption bold, 
Should dare 1 to tax the structure of the whole. 

2 And lives 1 the man 1 whose universal eye, 1 

Has swept 1 at once th 5 unbounded scheme of things ; 

Mark'd their dependence so, 1 5 and firm accord, 

As with unfalt'ring accent to conclude, 

That this availeth naught ? Has any seen 

The mighty chain of beings, less'ning down 

From infinite perfection to the brink 

Of dreary nothing, desolate abyss !y 

From which astonish' d thought, recoiling, turns ? 

Till then alone let zealous praise ascend, 

And hymns of holy wonder to that Power, 

Whose wisdom shines as lovely in our minds, 

As on our smiling eyes his servant sun. 20 — Thompson. 



SYNTAX PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 261 

ON PRIDE. 

1 Of all the causes, which conspire to blind 
Man's erring judgment, and misguide the mind, 
What the weak head with strongest bias rules, 
Is pride ; the never-failing vice of fools. 
Whatever nature has in worth denied, 

She gives in large recruits of needful pride ! 
For, as in bodies, thus in souls, we find 
What wants in blood and spirits, swell'd with wind. 
Pride, where wit fails, steps in 1 5 to our defence, 
And fills up 1 5 all the mighty void of sense. 

2 Tf 1 9 once right reason drive that cloud away, 
Truth breaks upon us with resistless day. 
Trust not yourself; but, your defects to know, 
Make use of ev'ry friend — and ev'ry foe. 

A little learning is a dangerous thing ; 
Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring ; 
There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain, 
And drinking largely* sobers 1 us 1 * again. 1 5 

3 Fired at first sight with what the muse imparts, 
In fearless youth we tempt the heights of arts ; 
While, from the bounded level of our mind, 
Short views we take, nor see the lengths behind : 

But more advanced, (we) behold, with strange surprise, 

New distant scenes of endless science rise ! 

So, pleased at first, the tow'ring Alps we try, 

Mount o'er the vales, and seem to tread the sky ; 

Th' eternal snows appear already past, 

And the first clouds and mountains seem the last ; 

But those attained, we tremble to survey 

The growing labors of the lengthened way ; 

Th' increasing prospect tires our wand'ring eyes, 

Hills peep o'er hills, and Alps on Alps arise, — Pope. 

SELFISHNESS REPROVED. 

1 Has God, thou fool ! work'd solely for thy good, 
Thy joy, thy pastime, thy attire, thy food? 
Who for thy table feeds the wanton fawn, 
For him as kindly spreads the flow'ry lawn. 
Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings ? 
Joy tunes his voice, joy elevates his wings. 



£62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Is it for thee the linnet pours his throat ? 
Loves of his own, and raptures swell the note. 

2 The bounding steed you pompously bestride, 
Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. 
Is thine alone the seed that strews the plain ? 
The birds of heav'n shall vindicate their grain. 
Thine the full harvest of the golden year ? 
Part pays, and justly, the deserving steer. 
The hog that ploughs not, nor obeys thy call, 
Lives on the labors of this lord of all. 

3 Know that nature's children all divide her care, 
The fur that warms a monarch, warmed a bear. 
While man exclaims, " See all things for my use !" 
" See man for mine !" replies a pampered goose. 
And just as short of reason must he fall, 

Who thinks all made for one, not one for all. 

4 Grant that the powerful still the weak control, 
Be man the wit and tyrant of the whole ; 
Nature that tyrant checks, he only knows, 
And helps another creature's wants and woes. 
Say, will the falcon, stooping from above, 

Smit with her varying plumage, spare the dove ? 
Admires the jay the insect's gilded wings ? 
Or hears the hawk when Philomela sings ? 

6 Man cares for all : to birds he gives his woods, 
To beasts his pastures, and to fish his floods ; 
For some his int'rest prompts him to provide, 
For more his pleasure, yet for more his pride. 
All feed on one vain patron, and enjoy 
TW extensive blessing of his luxury. 

6 That very life his learned hunger crave&, 
He saves from famine, from the savage saves ; 
Nay, feasts the animal he dooms his feast, 
And, till he ends the being, makes it blest : 
Which sees no more the stroke, nor feels the pain, 
Than favored man, by touch etherial slain. 
The creature had his feast of life before : 
Thou, too, must perish, when thy feast is o'er ! — Pope. 



SYNTAX PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 263 

THE PLEASURES AND BENEFITS OF AN IMPROVED AND WELL 
DIRECTED IMAGINATION. 

1 Oh ! blest of Heav'n, whom not the languid songs 
Of luxury, the siren ! not the bribes 

Of sordid wealth, nor all the gaudy spoils 

Of pageant honor, can seduce to leave 

Those ever-blooming sweets, which, from the tore 

Of nature, fair imagination culis, 

To charm th' enlivened soul ! What tho' not all 

Of mortal offspring can attain the height 

Of envied life ; tho' only few possess 

Patrician treasures, or imperial state ; 

Yet Nature's care, to all her children just, 

With richer treasures, and an ampler state, 

Endows at large whatever happy man 

Will deign to use them. 

2 His the city's pomp, 
The rural hours his. Whate'er adorns 

The princely dome, the column, and the arch, 
The breathing marble, and the sculptured gold, 
Beyond the proud possessor's narrow claim, 
His tuneful breast enjoys. For him the spring 
Distils her dews ; and from the silken gem 
Its lucid leaves unfolds ; for him the hand 
Of autumn tinges ev'ry fertile branch 
With blooming gold, and 1 8 blushes like the mom. 
Each passing hour sheds tribute from her wings, 
And still new beauties meet his lonely walk, 
And loves unfelt attract him. 

3 Not a breeze 

Flies o'er the meadow ; not a cloud imbibes 
The setting sun's effulgence ; not a strain 
From all the tenants of the warbling shade 
Ascends ; but whence his bosom can partake 
Fresh pleasure, unreproved. Nor thence partakes 
Fresh pleasures only ; for the attentive mind, 
By this harmonious action on her powers, 
Becomes herself harmonious ; want so oft 
In outward things to meditate the charm 
Of sacred order, soon she seeks at home, 
To find a kindred order; to exert 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Within herself this elegance of love, 
This fair inspired delight : her temper'd pow'rs 
Refine at lengthy and every passion wears 
A chaster, milder, more attentive mien. 

4 But if to ampler prospects, if to gaze 
On nature's form where, negligent of all 
The lesser graces, she assumes the port 
Of that Eternal Majesty that weighed 

The world's foundations, if to these the mind 

Exalts her daring eye ; then mightier far 

Will be the change, and nobler. Would the forms 

Of servile custom cramp her gen'rous pow'rs ? 

Would sordid policies, the barb'rous growth 

Of ignorance and rapine, bow her down 

To tame pursuits, to indolence and fear ? 

5 Lo ! She appeals to nature, to the winds 

And rolling waves, the sun's unwearied course, 

The elements and seasons ; all declare 

For what the eternal Maker has ordain 'd 

The powers of man ; we feel within ourselves 

His energy divine ; he tells the heart, 

He meant, he made us to behold and love 

What he beholds and loves, the general orb 

Of life and being ; to be great like Him, 

Beneficent and active. Thus the men 

Whom nature's works instruct, with God himself 

Hold converse ; and grow familiar, day by day, 

With his conceptions ; act upon his plan ; 

And form to his, the relish of their souls. — Akinsidb. 

THE CREATION REQUIRED TO PRAISE ITS AUTHOR. 

1 Begin, my soul, the exalted lay ! 
Let each enraptured thought obey, 

And praise the Almighty's name. 
Lo I heaven and earth, and sea and skies, 
In one melodious concert rise, 

To swell the inspiring theme. 

2 Ye fields of light, celestial plains, 
Where gay transporting beauty reigns, 

Ye scenes divinely fair ! 
Your Maker's wondrous power proclaim ; 
Tell how he formed your shining frame, 

And breathed the fluid air. 



SYNTAX PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 265 

3 Ye angels, catch the thrilling sound ! 
While all th J adoring thrones around, 

His boundless mercies sing ; 
Let every list'ning saint above, 
Wake all the tuneful soul of love, 

And touch the sweetest string. 

4 Join, ye loud spheres, the vocal choir ; 
Thou dazzling orb of liquid fire, 

Tlie mighty chorus aid. 
Soon as gray ev'ning gilds the plain, 
Thou moon, protract the melting strain, 

And praise him in the shade. 

5 Thou heav'n of heav'ns, his vast abode ; 
Ye clouds, proclaim your forming God, 

Who caird yon worlds from night ; 
" Ye shades, dispel !" th' Eternal said; 
At once th* involving darkness fled, 

And nature sprung to light. 

6 What'er a blooming world contains, 
That wings the air, that skims the plains, 

United praise bestow. 
Ye dragons, sound his awful name 
To heaven aloud, and roar acclaim, 

Ye swelling deeps below. 

7 Let ev'ry element rejoice ; 

Ye thunders, burst with awful voice 

To him who bids you roll ; 
His praise in softer notes declare, 
Each whispering breeze of yielding air, 

And breathe it to the soul. 

8 To him, ye graceful cedars, bow, 

Ye tow 'ring mountains, bending low, 

Your great Creator own ; 
Tell, when affrighted nature shook, 
How Sinai kindled at his look, 

And trembled at his frown. 

9 Ye flocks, that haunt the humble vale, 
Ye insects, flutt'ring on the gale, 

In mutual concourse rise ; 
12 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Crop the gay rose's vernal bloom, 
And waft its spoils, a rich perfume, 
In incense to the skies. 

10 "Wake, ail ye mounting tribes and sing, 
Ye plumy warblers of the spring, 

Harmonious anthems raise 
To him who shaped your finer mould, 
Who tipp'd your glitt'ring wings with gold, 

And tun'd your voice to praise. 

11 Let man, by nobler passions sway'd, 
The feeling heart, the judging head, 

In heavenly praise employ ; 
Spread his tremendous name around, 
Till heaven's broad arch rings back the sound, 

The gen'ral burst of joy. 

12 Ye whom the charms of grandeur please, 
JSTurs'd on the downy lap of ease^ 

Fall prostrate at his throne ; 
Ye princes, rulers, all adore ! 
Praise him, ye kings, who makes your power 

An image of his own. 

13 Ye fair, by nature formed to move, 
O praise the eternal source of love, 

With youth's enliv'ning fire ; 
Let age take up the tuneful lay, 
Sigh his bless 'd name, then soar away, 

And ask an angel's lyre. — Ogylvie. 

A MORNING HYMN. 

1 These are thy glorious works, parent of good, 
Almighty, thine this universal frame, 

Thus won'drous fair ; thyself how wond'rous then 
Unspeakable, who sitt'st above these heavens, 
To us, invisible, or dimly seen 
In these, thy lower works ; yet these declare 
Thy goodness beyond thought, and pow'r divine. 

2 Speak ye who best can tell, ye sons of light, 
Angels ; for ye behold him, and with songs 
And choral sympathies, day without nigld, 
Circle his throne rejoicing ; ye, in heaven 
On earth, join all ye creatures to extol, 



SYNTAX PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 267 

Him first, Him last, Him midst, and zrithout end, 

Fairest of stars, last in the train of night, 

If better thou belong not to the dawn, 

Sure pledge of day that crown'st the smiling morn 

With thy bright circlet, praise him in thy sphere, 

While day arises, that sweet hour of prime. 

Thou sun, of this great world, both eye and soul, 

Acknowledge him thy greater, sound his praise 

In thy eternal course, both when thou climb' st, 

And when high noon hast gained, and when thou fall'st. 

Moon that now meet'st the orient sun, now fly'st 

With the fix'd stars, fix'd in their orb that flies ; 

And ye five other wand' ring fires that move 

In mystic dance, not without song resound 

His praise, who out of darkness calFd up fight. 

Air,, and ye elements, the eldest birth 

Of nature's womb, that in quarternion run 

Perpetual circle, multiform, and mix 

And nourish all things ; let your ceaseless change 

Vary to our great Maker still new praise. 

Ye mists and exhalations that now rise 
From hill or streaming lake, dusky or gray, 
Till the sun paints your fleecy skirts with gold 
In honor to the world's great Author rise ! 
Whether to deck with clouds th' uncolor'd sky, 
Or wet the misty earth with falling show'rs, 
Rising or falling, still advance his praise. 

His praise, ye winds, that from four quarters blow, 

Breathe soft or loud ; and wave your tops, ye pines, 

With every plant, in sign of worship wave. « 

Fountains, and ye that warble as ye flow 

Melodious murmurs, warbling tune his praise. 

Join voices, all ye living souls ; ye birds 

That singing, up to heaven's gate ascend, 

Bear on your wings, and in your notes his praise. 

Ye that in waters glide, and ye that walk 
The earth, and stately tread, or lowly creep, 
Witness if I be silent, morn or even, 
To hill, or valley, fountain, or fresh shade 
Made vocal by my song, and taught his praise. 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hail, Universal Lord ! be bounteous still 

To give us only good ; and if the night 

Has gather' d aught of evil, or conceal' d, 

Disperse it, as now light dispels the dark. — Milton. 

DELIGHT IN GOD ONLY. 

I love (and have some cause to love) the earth ; 
She is my Maker's creature ; therefore good ; 
She is my mother, for she gave me birth; 
She is my tender nurse — she gives me food ; 

But what's a creature, Lord, compared with thee? 

Or what's my mother, or my nurse to me ? 

I love the air ; her dainty sweets refresh 
My drooping soul, and to new sweets invite me ; 
Her shrill-mouth' d quire sustains me with their flesh, 
And with their polyphonian notes deUght me : 
But what's the air or all the sweets that she 
Can bless my soul withal, compared to thee ? 

I love the sea : she is my fellow-creature, 
My careful purveyor ; she provides me store : 
She walls me round ; she makes my diet greater ; 
She wafts my treasure from a foreign shore : 
But, Lord of oceans, when compared with thee, 
What is the ocean, or her wealth to me ? 

To heaven's high city I direct my journey, 
Whose spangled suburbs entertain mine eye ; 
Mine eye, by contemplation's great attorney, 
Transcends the crystal pavement of the sky : 

But what is heaven, great God, compared to thee ? 

Without thy presence heaven's no heaven to me. 

Without thy presence, earth gives no refection ; 

Without thy presence, sea affords no treasure ; 

Without thy presence, air's a rank infection ; 

Without thy presence, heaven itself no pleasure : 
If not possessed, if not enjoyed in thee, 
What's earth, or sea, or air, or heaven to me? 

The highest honors that the world can boast, 
Are subjects far too low for my desire ; 
The brightest beams of glory are (at most) 
But dying sparkles of thy living fire : 



SYNTAX PARSING EXERCISES IN POETRY. 269 

The loudest flames that earth can kindle, be 
But nightly glow-worms, if compared to thee. 

Without thy presence, wealth is bags of cares ; 

Wisdom but folly ; joy disquiet — sadness : 

Friendship is treason, and delights are snares ; 

Pleasures but pain, and mirth but pleasing madness ; 
Without thee, Lord, things be not what they be, 
Nor have they being, when compared with thee. 

In having all things, and not thee, what have I ? 

Not having thee, what have my labors got ? 

Let me enjoy but thee, what further crave I ? 

And having thee alone, wh^t have I not ? 
I wish nor sea nor land ; nor would I be 
Possess'd of heaven, heaven unpossess'd of thee. 

Francis Quarles. 



PART IV. 

PROSODY. 



Prosody consists of two parts ; The one teaches the true 
pronunciation of words, comprising Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, 
Pause and Tone; and the other, Punctuation and the Laws of 
Versification. 

CHAPTER I. 

SECTION I. 

Accent. — Accent is the laying of a particular stress of the 
voice on a particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be 
better heard than the rest, or better distinguished from them ; 
as, in the word presume the stress of the voice must be on the 
letter u, which gives the accent to the latter syllable. Every 
word of more syllables than one, has one accented syllable. 
For the sake of euphony, or emphasis in a long word, we fre- 
quently give a secondary accent to another syllable besides the 
one which takes the principal accent, as the last syllable of 
tem'-per-a-ture, and the second of in-dem'-ni-fi-ca-tion. 

Quantity. — The quantity of a syllable is that time which is 
occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as either long or 
short. 

A vowel or syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel, 
which causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the 
following letters ; as in the words, fall, ball, mood, house, 
feature. 

A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant ; 
which causes the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding 
letter ; as ant, bonnet, hunger. 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short 
one, in pronouncing it. Thus — mate and note require double 
the time required by mat and not, this depends upon the use 
or omission of the letter e. 

270 



PROSODY— PUNCTUATION. 



271 



Emphasis. — By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller 
sound of the voice, by which we distinguish some word or 
words on which we design to lay particular stress, and to 
show how they affect the rest of the sentence : sometimes the 
emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone, as 
well as stress. This belongs more properly to elocution. 

Pause. — Pauses, or rests, in speaking and reading, are a 
total suspension of the voice during a perceptible, and in many 
cases, a measurable space of time. See Punctuation. 

Tone. — Tones differ from emphasis and pauses ; tones con- 
sist in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations 
of sound employed in the expression of our sentiments. Em- 
phasis affects particular ivords and phrases ; tones affect sen- 
tences, paragraphs, and sometimes an entire discourse. 



SECTION II. 
PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation treats of the pauses or marks used in writing. 
Their use is to mark the divisions of a sentence, in order to 
show the meaning more clearly, and to serve as a guide in the 
pauses and inflections required in reading. 

The principal marks are the following: 

5 is the Comma, and denotes the shortest pause. 

: is the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma. 

: is the Colon, a pause double that of the semicolon. 

. is the Period, a pause double that of the colon. 

f is the Interrogation mark, requiring a pause equal to the 
period. 



Exclamation. 
Dash. 

Parenthesis. 
Brackets. 
Apostrophe, 
Quotation. 
Hyphen. 
Section. 
Paragraph. 
Reference, or Notation Marks : 

* is the Asterisk. 

f is the Obelisk, or dagger. 

J is the Double dagger. 

|| is the Parallels, 
is the Index. 



Si 



1 



Brace. 

Ellipsis. 
Caret. 
Diai t sis. 
Acute accent. 
Grave accent. 
Long sound. 
Short sound. 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

Sometimes the § •([ are used for reference ; also, figures and 
the letters of the alphabet are used, to refer to marginal notes, 
&c. 

With respect to the length of time indicated by the pauses, 
no definite rule can be given, — the same point used in one 
kind of composition, will not, at all times, properly adapt itself 
to the point required in other kinds of composition , and for 
this reason, it becomes highly necessary for the pupil to under- 
stand well the construction of sentences, and to be governed 
mainly by the sense intended. 

It is thought the following, mainly from Rev. Peter Bul- 
lions' excellent grammar, are as few and concise as any others ; 
and, if properly studied, will give the pupil as correct a know- 
ledge of the use of the pauses as abstract rules can be made to 
do. 



SPECIAL RULES FOR THE COMMA. 

Rule 1. — In short, simple sentences, the comma is not used, 
as, "Hope is necessary in every condition of life." 

Rule 2. — When the logical subject of the verb is rendered 
long, by the addition of several adjuncts, or other qualifying 
words, to the grammatical subject, a comma is usually inserted 
immediately before the verb; as, "A steady and undivided 
attention to one subject, is a sure mark of a superior mind." 

Rule 3. — The clauses or members of compound sentences 
are usually separated by commas ; as, "Crafty men contemn 
studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them." 
But when the clauses are short, or closely connected, the comma 
is not used ; as, " Revelation tells us how we may attain hap- 
piness." 

Rule 4. — Two words of the same class, connected by a con- 
junction expressed, should not be separated by the comma; as, 
* ; The earth and the mcon are planets ;" " He is a wise and pru- 
dent man ;" " He catches and arrests the hours." But when the 
conjunction is omitted, the comma is inserted; as, "He is a 
plain, honest man." 

Rule 5. — More than two words of the same class, connected 
by a conjunction, either expressed or understood, have the 
comma after each ; as, "Poetry, music, and painting, are fine 
arts." But when the words so connected are adjectives , the 
comma should be inserted after each, except the one next to the 
noun ; as, " David was a wise, brave, and prudent king." 



PROSODY SPECIAL RULES FOR THE COMMA. 273 

Rule 6. — Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair; 
as, "Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and 
ruin, are the consequences of civil war." 

Rule 7. — Nouns in apposition are separated by a comma, 
when the latter noun has several words or adjuncts connected 
with it ; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." But a noun 
having no adjunct, and in apposition with another, is not 
separated from it by a comma; as, "Paul the Apostle;" 
"Alfred the Great," &c. 

Rule 8. — The nominative case independent, and the nomina- 
tive case absolute, with the words dependent on them, or qualify- 
ing them, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; 
as, "My son, hear the counsel of thy father ;" " I am, sir, your 
obedient servant ;" "The time of youth being precious, we should 
devote it to improvement." The infinitive mood absolute 
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by the 
comma; as, "To confess the truth, I was in fault." 

Rule 9. — Comparative and antithetical clauses are separated 
by commas ; as, " As the hart panteth after the waterbrooks, so 
doth my soul pant after thee." 

" Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full." n 

But when the comparison is short, and the connection inti- 
mate, the comma should be omitted; as, "Wisdom is better 
than rubies." (The antithetical clause is the clause in con- 
trast with the first, or leading clause, forming the antithesis ; 
as, in the latter sentence, "better than," forms the antithesis ; 
"rubies are" is in fhe antithetical clause. The two clauses 
form an antithesis.) 

Rule 10. — The adverbs nay, yea, yes, so, hence, again, first, 
secondly, lastly, &c, when considered important, and particu- 
larly at the beginning of a sentence, should be separated from 
the context by the comma; as, u Noy, but we will serve the 
Lord." So, also, as and thus, introducing an example, or a 
quotation ; as, " He spake to me thus, Whence art thou," &c. 
See as in the above examples. 

Rule 11. — A relative pronoun, with its clause, explanatory 
of its antecedent, is usually separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by a comma ; as, "He who disregards the good opinion of 
the world, must be utterly abandoned ;" or, " He must be ut- 
terly abandoned, who disregards the opinion of the world. 9 ' The 
relative pronoun standing next to its antecedent, as in the 
former of the two examples above, should not be separated 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

from it by the comma ; but, if words intervene, by transposition, 
or otherwise, between the relative and its antecedent, the comma 
should be inserted immediately before the relative, as in the 
latter example. 

Rule 12. — The word that, used as a conjunction, and pre- 
ceded by another clause, has a comma before it ; as, " Be virtu- 
ous, that you may be happy." 

Rule 13. — When a verb is understood, a comma must be in- 
serted in its place ; as, " Reading makes a full man ; conversa- 
tion, a ready man ; and writing, an exact man." 

Rule 14. — Words repeated are separated by commas ; as, 
"Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God Almighty ;" "No, no, no, 
it cannot be that he has deceived me." 

Rule 15. — Inverted sentences often require commas to separate 
the adjuncts or clauses, thrown out of their regular order, or 
connection ; as, " To God, we attribute the government of the 
universe." In its natural order it would read, " We attribute 
to God the government of the universe." " His delight was, 
to assist the distressed." Natural order : "To assist the dis- 
tressed was his delight." 

Rule 16. — Short expressions, in the manner of quotations, 
are separated by commas ; as, " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of 
slaves." Also, the verbs say, reply, and others similar, with 
their dependent words, introducing a quotation or a remark, 
are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; 
as, " The book of nature, said he, is open before thee ;" "- I say 
unto all, watch." 

Rule 17. — Adjectives, adverbs, participles, infinitives, &c, 
when separated from the word on which they depend, or, 
when accompanied by several adjuncts, commonly require 
commas to be inserted before and after them ; as, "His talents, 
formed for great enterprises, could not fail to render him con- 
spicuous ;" "We must not, however, neglect our duty;" " Our 
Heavenly Father, gracious to all, pours his blessings, in rich 
profusion, on the evil and the good." 

SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for separating the clauses of a com- 
pound sentence, which are not so closely connected as those 
which are separated by the comma, and yet more closely than 
those required to be separated by the colon. 



PROSODY SEMICOLON COLON. 275 

General Rule. 
The parts of a compound sentence, as separated by the 
semicolon, should contain in themselves, individually, a com- 
plete and independent proposition, but still having a connection 
with the other parts. 

Special Rules. 

Rule 1. — When a sentence, containing a complete proposi- 
tion, is followed by a clause added as an inference, or is offered 
as a reason, or to give some explanation, the part so added 
should be separated from the preceding by a semicolon; as, 
" Perform your duty faithfully ; for this will procure you the 
favor of Heaven *"■•*-* The orator makes this truth plain to his 
hearers ;" he awakens them ; he excites them to action ; he 
shows them their impending danger. " 

Rule 2. — When several short sentences, complete in them- 
selves, but having a slight connection in idea, follow in succes- 
sion, they should be separated by a semicolon; as, "The epic 
poem recites the exploits of a hero ; a tragedy represents a 
disastrous event ; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of man- 
kind ; pastoral poetry describes rural life ; and elegy displays 
the tender emotions of the heart.'"' 

Rule 3. — When a sentence is composed of several members, 
and these members are complex, and separated by commas, the 
larger, or leading members of the (compound) sentence, are 
sometimes separated from each other by the semicolon ; as, 
"As the desire of approbation, when it works according to 
reason, improves the amiable part of our species in every 
thing that is laudable ; so, nothing is more destructive thereto, 
when it is governed by vanity and folly." 

Rule 4. — When a general term has several others, as parti- 
culars, in apposition with it, the general term is separated from 
the others by a semicolon ; and the others are separated from 
each other by commas ; as, "Adjective pronouns are divided into 
four classes ; possessive, indefinite, demonstrative, and distri- 
butive/' — But if the word namely be introduced, the separation 
may be made by a comma. 

COLON. 

The colon is used to divide a compound sentence into two or 
more parts, not so closely connected as those separated by a 
semicolon, nor yet so independent as those required to be 
separated by a period. 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Special Rules. 

Rule 1. — When a sentence is complete in itself, but is fol- 
lowed by some additional remark or illustration, depending on 
it in sense, though not in Syntax, a colon is used to separate 
the clauses ; as, "A brute arrives at a point of perfection 
beyond which it never can pass : in a few years he has all the 
endowments of which he is capable.' ' " Study to acquire a 
habit of thinking : (for) nothing is more important/' 

Rule 2. — When several short sentences follow each other in 
succession, each containing complete sense in itself, but all these 
sentences having a common dependence on some subsequent 
clause ; the short sentences are separated from the subsequent 
clause by a colon, and are separated from each other by a semico- 
lon ; as, " That nature is unlimited in her operations ; that she has 
inexhaustible resources in reserve ; that knowledge will always 
be progressive ; and that all future generations will continue to 
make discoveries : these are among the assertions of philosophers. " 

Rule 3.- — Either a colon or a semicolon may be used when an 
example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced ; as, "Always 
remember this ancient maxim ; ' Know thyself. 5 ' The Scrip- 
tures give us an amiable representation of the Deity in these 
words : ' God is love. 5 " 

Rule 4. — When the conjunction is not expressed before the 
concluding member of a compound sentence, which would 
otherwise be separated by a semicolon, the colon is used ; but 
when the conjunction is expressed, in such instance, the 
semicolon is used; as, "Apply yourself to learning; it will 
redound to your honor. 55 Or, "Apply yourself to learning, for 
it will redound to your honor. 55 

Note. — The colon and the semicolon are so nearly identical 
in their requirement of pause, '&c, that, it seems, good and re- 
putable use, the arbiter in such cases, is about to decide upon 
the disuse of the former. It is evident the colon is now but 
little used. See S. S. Green's Analysis, p. 255. N. Butlers' 
Grammar, p. 210. 

Its disuse would certainly facilitate the art of punctuation, as 
well as render the art itself more consistent and uniform. 

PERIOD. 
Sentences that are complete in sense, and not connected in 
grammatical construction, are separated by a period ; as, " Fear 
God. 55 " Be at peace among yourselves.' 5 "Exercise charity 
towards all men." 



PROSODY INTERROGATION OTHER WRITING CHARACTERS. 277 

A conjunction may, of course, begin a sentence, but it does 
not argue, that there" is such a grammatical connection existing 
between the sentences, as requires a pause less than the period. 
For long or short sentences, if complete, even though gram- 
matically connected by conjunctions, often require the insertion 
of a period ; as, " Recreations, though they may be of an in- 
nocent kind, require steady government, to keep them within a 
due and limited province. But such as are of an irregular and 
vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished from 
any well regulated mind." >r - 

The period is also used after abreviations ; as, A. D. r. b. 
N. B. A. M. P. M. D. D. G. W. Johnson & Co., &c. 

INTERROGATION. 

,A question is regarded as a complete sentence, and the mark 
of interrogation as equal to a period. The interrogation is 
always put at the end of a direct question ; as, What is truth ? 
But the indirect question does not require the interrogation ; as, 
" Pilate inquired what is truth/' 

Note. — " Printers are generally the best punctuators, as they 
follow a uniform system. It is, therefore, for the most part, 
best, in preparing matter for the press, to leave this matter to 
them, except where the meaning intended may not be clearly 
perceived without the punctuation.' ' Rev. P. Bullions' Gram- 
mar, p. 207. 

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING. 

The Exclamation (!) is used after sudden emotion of any 
kind; also in invocations or addresses; as, "Eternity! thou 
pleasing, dreadful thought." Oh has the mark immediately 
after itfor after the next word ; as, " Oh ! that he would come." 
But when is used, the mark is placed after some intervening 
words ; as, " 0, my friends !" 

The Dash ( — ) is used when the sentence breaks off abrupt- 
ly ; also to denote a significant pause— an unexpected turn in 
the sentiment— or that the first clause is common to all the 
rest, as in this definition. 

The Parenthesis ( ) includes a clause not essential to the 
sentence ; as, 

"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The parenthetical clause should have the same point that is 
used before it, as in the above, there is a comma after know, 
because there is one after truth. But cases of interrogation and 
exclamation are excepted ; as, " While they wish to please, 
(and why should they not wish it?) they disdain dishonorable 
means." 

The Parenthesis is now seldom used ; instead of it, the 
comma, or sometimes the dash is used ; as, 

' \ Know thou this truth — enough for man to knon, — 
Virtue is happiness below." 

S. S. Greens' Analysis, p. 225. 

" To others do, the law is not severe, 
What to thyself thou wishest to be done." 

JN\ Butler's Grammar, p. 214. 

The Brackets ( [ ] ) generally enclose some explanation, or 
something intended to prevent mistake ; as, "John told James 
that he [James] was to get a new book.*' 

The Apostrophe ( J ) is used to denote the possessive case ; 
as, "John's book." It is also used to denote that a letter is 
omitted ; as e'en for even, 'tis for it is, tho y for though. 

The Quotation (" ") is used to enclose the words of another 
person, and also to mark a passage regarded as a quotation ; 
for which see these examples. 

The Hyphen (-) is used to connect the parts of a compound 
word; as, "Lap-dog;"" "Red-hot iron." It is also used at the 
end of a line, to show that the rest of the word is at the be- 
ginning of the next line ; in which case it is not proper to 
place a part of the syllable in one line, and the other part in 
another line. 

The Section (§) marks the small divisions of a book into 
chapters, or chapters into portions. Butler's Grammar, p. 21 5 ; 
Bullions' Grammar, p. 208. 

The Paragraph (^[) denotes the beginning of a subject. 'Not 
much used except in the Bible. 

The Brace (, — A — s ) is generally used to connect three lines 
in poetry, which form a triplet. It is also used to connect 
several words with one common term ; as, 
John Williams, ) 
James Anderson, V Trustees. 
Robert Thompson, ) 

The Ellipsis ( — or * * *) is generally used when some 
letters are omitted; as in a name ; as, B — — n for Byron. 



PROSODY MARKS AND CAPITAL LETTERS. 279 

The same is also used to denote the omission of words and 
clauses ; as, 

" The seraph spoke — (" saying," or " and said,") ' 'Tis 

reason's part 
To govern and to guard the heart/ " 

It seems also to be used to give time for some reflection upon 
what has been just said, in connection with what is about to be 
said ; as, 

(i Where's the passage to the skies? 

The road through death's dark valley lies." — 
" When the stern monarch of the grave, 
With haughty strides approached : — amazed 
I stood, and trembled as I gaz'd." 

The Caret (a) is used in writing, to show that some letter, 

lies 
word, or phrase has been omitted, as " The pencil on the 
table." a 

The Index (M&T) points to some remarkable passage. 

THE VOWEL MARKS. 

The Diaresis, (••), placed over either of two concurrent 
vowels, shows that they are not to be pronounced as a diphthong, 
but are to be divided into separate syllables ; as, " Cooperate, 
aerial." 

The Acute Accent ( '). The Grave Accent ( x ). 

The Long Sound (—) is placed over a long vowel. 

The Short Sound (~) is placed over a short vowel. 

REFERENCE OR NOTATION MARKS. 

The Asterisk (*),- the Obelisk or Dagger (j*), the Double 
Dagger (I), and the Parallels (||)are used to refer to notes 
in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Sometimes small 
letters and figures are used for the same purpose. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING THEM. 

1. Tine first word in every new sentence. 

2. The first word in every line in poetry. 

3. All proper names and titles of honor. 



280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. All adjectives derived from proper names. 

5. All the appellations of the Deity. 

6. The first word of every direct quotation, when the quo- 
tation itself forms a complete sentence, and 

7. Every noun and principal word in the title of books 
should begin with a capital letter. 

8. The pronoun /and the interjection should be capitals. 

9. The name of an object personified, may be used as a 
proper name, and should begin with a capital. 

10. Other words when considered of particular importance, 
may also begin with capitals. 

SECTION III. 

FIGURES. 
A figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation from the 
ordinary spelling, formation, construction, or application of words. 
There are, accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of Ety- 
mology, figures of Syntax, and figures of Rhetoric. 

Figures of Orthography. 
A figure of Orthography is an intentional deviation from the 
spelling of a word. The principal figures of this class are two, 
mamely : Mi-me-sis and Ar-cha-ism. 

1 . Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mis- 
pronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a 
false spelling ; as, "Maisler, says he, have you any werry good 
weal in your vollet?" 

" Perditions ! I can hardly stand." 

2. An Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to 
ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthography ; 
as, "Newe grene chese of smalle clammynes comfortethe a hotte 
stomake." " He hath holpen his servant Israel. 

[G. Brown's G. of E. G., p. 785. 

Figures of Etymology. 
A figure of this class is merely a departure from the usual, 
or simple form of the word, the most important of which are 
the following eiofht : 



1. A-phser-e-sis. 

2. Pros-the-sis. 

3. Syn-co-pe. 

4. A-poc-o-pe. 



5. Par-a-go-ge. 

6. Di aer-e-sis. 

7. Syn-aer-e-sis. 

8. Tme-sis. 



PROSODY FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 281 

1. Aphceresis is the elision of a letter or a syllable from 
the beginning of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'hove, 'neath, for 
against, began, above, beneath. 

2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or a syllable to a 
word ; as, adown, agoing, afisldng, &c, for down, going , fishing , 
&c. 

3. Syncope is the elision of a letter or a syllable, usually a 
short syllable, from the middle of a word ; as, med'cine, sp'rit, 
e'en, o'er, for medicine, spirit, even, over, &c. 

4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or a syllable from the 
end of a word ; as, thd* for though, th' for the, &e. 

5. Paragoge is the annexing of a letter or a syllable to the 
end of a word ; as, deary for dear, Johnny for John, &c. 

6. Diarresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into dif- 
ferent syllables, usually marked thus, (•• ) on the second vowel; 
as, cooperate, &c. 

7 Synceresis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either 
orthography or in pronunciation ; as, dost, seest, loved, learned, 
pronounced in one syllable, instead of two ; as, do-est, se-est, 
lov-ed, learn-ed. 

8. Tmesis is the separating of the parts of a compound word, 
by an intervening term ; as, whatsoever time, on whichsoever 
side, toward us ; divided thus : what time soever, on which side 
soever, to us ward. 

i£5r* In all our pronunciation, except that of the solemn" 
style, in which the e is generally retained and made vocal, 
such verbal or participial Terminations as can be so uttered, are 
usually sunk, by syndesis, into mere modifications of the pre- 
ceding syllables. — [G. Brown's G. of E. G., p. 786. 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordi- 
nary construction of words. The principal figures of syntax are 
five, namely : 



4. Enallage. 

5. Hyperbation. 



1. Ellipsis. 

2. Pleonasm. 

3. Syllepsis. 
1. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are 

necessary to complete the construction, but not necessarily ex- 
pressed. Such words are said, in technical phrase, to be un- 
derstood, because they are perceived by the mind, as belonging 
to the sentence, though they are not uttered. 
12* 



282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Of compound sentences, many are elliptical, and sometimes, 
for brevity's sake, even the most essential parts of a simple 
sentence are suppressed; as, "But more of this hereafter." 
This means, "But I shall say more of this hereafter." 
"Prythee, peace ;" that is, "I pray thee to hold thy peace." 

There may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or 
even of a whole clause, when it repeats what precedes ; but 
the omission of mere articles and interjections can scarcely con- 
stitute a proper ellipsis, because these parts of speech, when- 
ever they are necessary to be recognized, ought to be ex- 
pressed. See Rule 21, Syntax. 

2. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words ; as, 
" But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt 
not eat of it;" "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear;" 
% All ye inhabitants of the world, and divellers on the earth." 
This figure is allowable only when, in animated discourse, it 
abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea, to 
impress it more strongly. A pleonasm, when so used, is 
sometimes both impressive and elegant, but an unemphatic 
repetition of the same idea is one of the worst faults of bad 
language. 

3. Syllepsis (or Sullepsis) is the agreement formed accord- 
ing to the figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of 
the thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or common 
use of the term ; it is, therefore, in general, connected with 
some figure (personification) in rhetoric; as, " The word was 
made flesh, and dwelt amongst us, and we beheld his glory ;" 
" Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached 
Christ unto them" 

"While Evening draws her crimson curtains round." 
" The Thunder raises his tremendous voice." 

4. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one modi- 
fication, for another. This figure borders closely upon soli- 
cism, and, for the stability of the language, it should be spa- 
ringly indulged. It consists mostly in the putting of adjectives 
for adverbs; adverbs for nouns ; one mood for another; one 
tense for another ; the active for the passive voice of verbs, we, 
and us, and you, to represent a single individual of the first or 
the second person, &c. 

5. Hyperbation is the transposing of words and clauses in a 
sentence, to give variety, force and vivacity to the expression ; 
as, " Now come we to the last ;" "Rings the world with the vain 
stir," 



PROSODY FIGURES OF RHETORIC, OR TROPES. 283 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC, OR TROPES. 

A figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from the or- 
©..... 

dinary application of ivords, to give animation, strength and 
beauty to the expression. 

The principal figures of this class are the following : 

1. Personification. 

2. Simile. 



9. Synecdoche. 

10. Antithesis. 

11. Climax. 

12. Exclamation. 

13. Interrogation. 

14. Paralepsis. 

15. Apostrophe. 



3. Metaphor. 

4. Allegory. 

5. Vision. 

6. Hyperbole. 

7. Irony. 

8. Metonomy. 

1 . Personification, or prosopopoeia, is the figure of speech by 
which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects; as, 
"The ground thirsts for rain ; or, " The earth smiles with 
plenty ;" "The sea saw it and fled." See Syllepsis, Figure of 
Syntax. 

2. A Simile expresses the resemblance one thing bears to 
another ; as, "He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of 
water," &c. 

3. A Metaphor is a simile without the sign ( like or as) of 
comparison ; as, " He shall be a tree planted," &c. 

4. An Allegory is a metaphor continued, or several meta- 
phors so connected as to form a kind of parable or fable ; as, 
"Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out 
the heathen and planted it. 9 - By the vine is meant the Israeli- 
tish nation. Of this style are JEsop's Fables, Bunyan's "Pil- 
grim's Progress," &c. 

5. Vision, or imagery, is a figure by which the speaker re- 
presents past events, or the objects of his imagination, as actu- 
ally present to the senses; as, "Caesar leaves Gaul, passes the 
Rubicon, and enters Italy;" "The combat thickens : on ! ye 
brave !" In describing a past event, we use the present tense 
of the verb, or, in alluding to the future, we sometimes use the 
present tense. 

6. Hyperbation is the figure by which we represent things as 
greater or less, better or worse, than they really are ; not, how- 
ever, with a view to deceive, but merely to gratify a lively 
imagination. Young persons deal much in hyperbation ; but 
age and greater experience have a tendency to abate the 
warmth of imagination, and to chasten their manner of expres- 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sion. " As swift as the wind/ 5 li As white as snow/' and the 
like, and the common forms of compliment, are almost all of 
them extravagant hyperboles. It is also called exaggeration. 
David says of Saul and Jonathan, "They were swifter than 
eagles, they were stronger than lions." 

7. Irony is the figure by which we mean quite the contrary 
of what we say ; the circumstances occasioning its use, and 
often the tone of the voice accompanying the expression itself, 
are sufficient to show that we wish to be understood in a sense 
quite the reverse of what the words, themselves, would indi- 
cate ; as, when the Prophet Elijah said to the worshippers of 
the idol, Baal, " Cry aloud, for he is a god; either he is talking, 
or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he 
sleepeth, and must be awaked" Its use, on many occasions, 
indicates severe reproach ; as, when Job replied to his advisers : 
" No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you" 

8. Metonomy is the figure by which we put the cause for the 
effect, or the effect for the cause ; or the container for the thing 
contained ; the sign for the thing signified ; as, when we say, 
"He reads Milton," we mean Milton's ivorks ; ''Grey hairs 
should be respected ;" meaning old age ; "The kettle boils /" the 
container for the thing contained. 

9. Synedoche, or comprehension, is putting the whole for a 
part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for a species, or a species 
for a genus ; a definite number for an indefinite; as, the waves 
for the sea, the head for the person, ten thousand for a great 
many, &c. This figure is nearly allied to the metonomy. 

10. Antithesis, or contrast, is the figure by which different 
things are contrasted, to make them show one another to ad- 
vantage. Comparison is founded on the resemblance ; antithesis 
on the contrast, or opposition of objects ; as, li The wicked flee 
when no man pursueth, but the righteous are as bold as a lion." 

11 Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." 
" If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his 
stores, but to diminish his desires." "If you regulate your 
desires according to the standard of nature, you will never be 
poor ; if according to the standard of opinion, you will never be 
rich." 

4< Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; 
Though poor, luxurious; though submissive, vain; 
Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; 
And e'en in penance, planning sins anew." — Goldsmith 



PROSODY FIGURES OF RHETORIC, OR TROPES. 285 

11. Climax, or amplification, consists in hightening all the 
circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place 
in the strongest light. Cicero gives a lively instance of this 
figure, when he says, " It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in 
bonds ; it is the hight of guilt to scourge him; little less than 
parricide to put him to death: what name, then, shall I give to the 
act of crucifying him?" See also Romans, chap, viii, verses 
38 and 39. 

12. Exclamation is a figure used to express some strong or 
sudden emotion of the mind under the influence of surprise, 
admiration, joy, grief, &c. See Interjection. 

13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emo- 
tion of our mind, and enliven our discourse by proposing ques- 
tions. The literal use of the interrogation is that of asking a 
question for information's sake ; but when men are strongly 
moved, what they would earnestly deny or affirm, they often 
put in the form of a question ; as, ' * Hath he said it ? and shall 
he not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall he not make it 
good?" By placing the nominative before the verb, the figure 
would be destroyed, and as a consequence, the force of the 
argument very much weakened. 

14. Parallepsis is a figure by which the speaker pretends to 
conceal what he is really declaring and strongly enforcing ; as, 
M Horatius was once a very promising young gentleman, but 
in process of time he became so addicted to gaming, not to 
mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon exhausted 
his estate, and ruined his constitution." 

1 5. Apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of 
the subject, to address some other person or thing, as either 
absent or dead ; as, " Death is swallowed up in victory ;" " 
Death ! where is thy sting ? Grave ! where is thy victory ?" 
&c. 1 Cor., xv chap., 55 verse 



POETIC LICENSE. 

Besides the foregoing figures of Etymology and Syntax, 
there are many others, not properly denominated figures, but, 
on account of their being most commonly used in poetry, are 
called Poetic License. As it is proper, therefore, for the pupil 
to have a knowledge of these also, that he may the better 
understand the nature and peculiarities of poetry, the follow- 
ing list, containing the most of these deviations from uniformity 
of construction, is subjoined : 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

I. Poets not unfrequently omit the article, for the sake ol 
brevity or meter ; as, 

1 f What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime, 
Like shipwrecked mariner on desert coast !" 

2 "Sky lower'd, and, muttering thunder, some sad drops 
Wept at completing of the mortal sin." 

II. They sometimes abbreviate common nouns after a man- 
ner of their own ; as, amaze, for amazement ; acclaim, for ac- 
clamation ; eve, or even, for evening; plaint, for complaint; 
targe, for target. 

III. By Enallage, they use verbal forms substantively, or 
put verbs for nouns, &c. ; (See Enellage,) as, 

1 " Instant, without disturb, they took alarm." 

2 "The gracious Judge, without revile, reply *d." 

IV. They employ several nouns that are rarely used in prose ; 
as, benison, boon, fane, guise, ire, ken, lore, meed, sire, welkin, 
your. 

V. They introduce the noun self after another noun of the 
possessive case; as, 

1 "Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 
Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom/' 

2 " Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's self" 

VI. They place before the verb, nouns and other words that 
usually come after it ; they also place after the verb those that 
usually go before it ; as, 

1 "No jealousy their dawn of love o'ercast, 
Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife." 

2 " ISTo hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." 

3 "Thy chain a wretched weight shall prove.''* 

4 " Follows the loosened aggravated roar." 

5 " Th&t purple grows the primrose pale ." 
(See Rule on page 250). 

VII. They more frequently place adjectives after their nouns, 
than do prose writers ; as, 

1 "Or when the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 
Show'rs on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold." 

2 " Come nymph demure, with mantle blue." 

VIII. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not 
literally belong ; as, 

1 "The plowman homeward plods his weary way." 

2 "Or drowsy tinkling s lull the distant folds." 



PROSODY POETIC LICENSE. 287 

IX. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities ; 
(i. e., adjectives for nouns,) as, 

1 " Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, 
And on the boundless of thy goodness calls/' 

2 " Won from the void and formless infinite; 

To thy large heart give utterance due ; thy heart 
Contains oi good, wise, just, the perfect shape." 

X. They substitute quality for manner ; (i. e., adjectives 
for adverbs, ) as, 

1 " The stately sailing swan 

Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale, 
And, arching proud his neck, with oary feet, 
Bears forward fierce, and guards his osier isle/' 

2 "Thither continual pilgrims crowded still/' 

XI. They form new compound epithets oftener than do prose 
writers ; as, 

1 "In world-rejoicing state it moves sublime/' 

2 "The dewy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun." 

3 " By brooks and groves, in hoUow -whispering gales" 

4 " The violet oi' sky-woven vest." 

5 "A league from Epidamnum's land we sail'd, 
Before the always ivind-obeying deep 

Gave any tragic instance of our harm." 

6 " Blue-eyed, strange-voiced, sharp-beaked, ill-omened fowl, 
What art thou?" "What I ought to be, an owl." 

XII. They connect the comparative degree to the positive, 
before a verb ; as, 

1 "Near and more near the billows rise." 

2 " Wider and wider spreads the vale." 

XIII. They form many adjectives in y, which are not com- 
mon in prose ; as, The dimply flood, the dusky vale, a gleamy 
ray, heapy harvest, moony shield, vasty deep. 

XIY. They abreviate the adjective; as, dread, for dreadful ; 
drear, for dreary ; ebon, for ebony ; hear, for hoary ; cone, for 
lonely ; scant, for scanty ; slope, for sloping ; submiss, for sub- 
missive; vermil, for vermillion ; yon, for yonder. 

XV. They employ several adjectives that are not in use in 
prose, or are used but seldom ; as, azure, blithe, boon, dank, 
darkling, darksome, doughty, dun, fell, rife, rapt, rueful, sear 
sylvan, twain, wan. 

XVI. They employ the personal pronouns, and introduce 
their nouns, afterwards ; as, 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 " It curl'd not Tweede alone that breeze" 

2 " What may it be, the heavy sound?" 

3 " Is it the lightning's quivering glance, 

That on the thicket streams ; 
Or do they flash on spear and lance, 
The sun's retiring beams ?" 

XVII. They use the forms of the second person singular 
oftener than do others ; as, 

1 " Yet I had rather, if I were to choose, 
Thy service in some graver subject use, 

Such as may make thee search thy coffers round, 
Before thou clothe my fancy in fit sound. 

2 " But thou, of temples old, or altars new, 
Standest alone — with nothing like to thee." 

XVIII. They sometimes omit relatives that are nominatives ; 
as, 

" For is there ought in sleep can charm the wise ?" 

XIX. They sometimes omit the antecedent, or introduce it 
after the relative. 

1 " Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys, 
Who never toils or watches, never sleeps.' * 

2 " Who dares think one thing, and another tell, 
My soul detests him as the gates of hell." 

XX. They remove relatives or other connectives into the 
body of their clauses ; as, 

1 " Parts of the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." 

2 " Not half so dreadful rises to the sight, 
Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs." 

XXI. They make intransitive verbs and participles transitive, 
by changing their class ; as, 

1 " Awhile he stands, 

6 . . *.: ■'■ • ■ 

Gazing the inverted landscape, 1 4 half afraid 
To meditate the blue profound below." 

2 "Still in harmonious intercourse they lived 

1 5 J 1 

The rural day, 1 * and talFd the flowing heart/' 1 Y 

3 " I saw and heard, for we sometimes 

3. 1 

Who dwell this wild, 1 1 constraint by want, come forth." 
(Supply the ellipsis, and the verb is no longer transitive.) 



PROSODY FOETIC LICENSE. 289 

XXII. They make transitive verbs intransitive, by giving 
them no regimen, (or object, called the complement of the verb.) 

1 " The soldiers should have toss r d me on their pikes, 
Before I would have granted to that act." 
(Supply the noun consent , and make the verb transitive.) 

XXIII. They give to the imperative mood the first and third 
persons ; as 

1 "Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." 

2 Be man's peculiar ivork his sole delight." 

3 "And what is reason ? Be she thus defin'd : 
Reason is upright stature in the soul." 

XXIV. They employ can, could, and would, as principal 
verbs, transitive ; as, 

1 " What for ourselves we can, is always ours." 

2 "Who does the best his circumstance allows, 
Does well, acts nobly : — angels could no more." 

3 " What would this man ? Now upward would he soar, 
And, little less than angel, would be more." 

(For the three preceding items, see Sullepsis and JEnellage.) 

XXV. They place the infinitive before the word on which it 
depends ; (or, by which it is governed. See Rule 12, Syntax) 
as* 

1 "When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, designed." — 

2 " Besides, Minerva, to secure her care, 
Diffused around a veil of thickn'd air," 

XXVI. They place the auxiliary verb after its principal, by 
hyperbation ; (for which see figures of Syntax) as, 

1 " ISTo longer heed the sunbeam bright 
That plays on Carron's breast he can" 

2 "Follow I must, I cannot go before." 

3 " The man who suffers, loudly may complain ; 
And rage he may, but he shall rage in vain." 

XXVII. They sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prefixes 
before the verb ; (See Apheresis and Prosthesis, Figures of Ety- 
mology) as, bide, or abide ; dim, or bedim; gird, or begird ; 
lure, or allure ; move, or emove ; reave, or bereave ; vails, or 
avails; vanish, or evanish; wail, or bewail; weep, or beweep ; 
wilder, or bewilder ; &c. 

1 "All knees to thee shall bow, of them that bide 
In heav'n or earth, or under earth in hell." 
13 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2 " Of a horse, ware the heels ; of a bull-dog, the jaws ; 
Of a bear, the embrace ; of a lion, the paws." 

XXY1II. Some of the verbs they abbreviate ; (See Apocope. 
Figures of Etymology) as list, for listen; ope, for open; hark, 
for harken; dark, for darken; threat, for threaten; sharp, for 
sharpen. 

XXiX. They employ several verbs but rarely used in prose ; 
as, appeal, astound, brook, cower, doff, ken, wend, ween, trow. 

XXX. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the 
infinitive ; as, 

1 " Who would not sing for Lycidas ? He knew 
Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." 

2 " For not to have been dipp'd in Lethe lake, 
Could save the son of Thetis from to die: 9 

XXXI. They employ the participle more frequently than 
prose writers, and in a sense somewhat peculiar ; often, inten- 
sitive by accumulation ; as, 

1 " He came, and standing in the midst, explain'd 
The peace rejected, but the truce obtain d" 

2 "As a poor miserable captive thrall 
Comes to the place where he before had sat 
Among the prime in splendor, now deposed, 
Ejected, emptied, gaz'd, unpitied, shunrtd" 

3 " Though from our birth the faculty divine 

Is chain* d and tortured— cabined, cribVd, confined:' 

XXXII. In turning participles to adjectives, they sometimes 
ascribe actions, or active properties to things to which they do 
not literally belong ; (See Syllipsis) as, 

" The green leaf quivering in the gale, 
The warbling hill, the lowing vale." 

XXXIII. They employ several Adverbs that are but seldom 
used in prose ; as oft, haply, inly. 

XXXIV. They give to adverbs a peculiar location in respect 
to other words ; as, 

1 " Peeping horn forth their alleys green." 

2 "Erect the standard there of ancient night." 

3 "The silence often of pure innocence 
Persuades, when speaking fails." 

4 "Where Universal Love not smiles around." 



PROSODY POETIC LICENSE. 291 

XXXV. They sometimes omit the introductory abverb there ; 
as, 

" Was nought around but images of rest." 

XXXVI. They briefly compare actions by a kind of com- 
pound adverbs ending in like ; as, 

" Who bid the stork, Columbus -like, explore 
Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before." 

XXXVII. They employ the Conjunctions or — or, and nor — 
nor, as correspondents ; as, 

1 "Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po." 

2 Wealth heap'd on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys." 

XXXVIII. They oftener place prepositions and their ad- 
juncts before the 'words on which they depend, than do prose 
writers ; as, 

1 'Against your fame with fondness hate combines ; 
The rival batters, and the lover mines." 

XXXIX. They sometimes place a dissyllabic preposition 
after its object ; as, 

1 " The Muses fair, these peaceful shades among, 
With skillful fingers sweep the trembling strings." 

2 " Where Echo walks steep hills among, 
List'ning to the shepherd's song." 

3 "When beauty, Eden's bowers within, 
First stretched the arm to deeds of sin, 
When passion burn'd and prudence slept, 
The pitying angels bent and wept." 

XL. They have occasionally employed certain prepositions, 
for which, perhaps, it would not be easy to cite prosaic autho- 
rity ; as, adown, aloft, aloof, anear, aneath, askant, aslant, 
aslope, atween, atwixt, besouth, traverse, through, sans. (For 
some of these see Prosthesis.) 

XLI. They oftener employ interjections than do prose wri- 
ters ; as, 

" let me gaze ! — Of gazing there's no end. 

let me think ! — Thought too is wilder 'd here." 

XLII. They oftener employ antequated words and modes of 
expression; as, 

1 " Withouten that, would come an heavier bale." 

2 " To number up the thousands dwelling here, 
An useless were, and eke an endless task." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3 " Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy" 

4 " But these I passen by with nameless numbers moe." 

5 What boots it thee to fly from pole to pole? 
Hang o'er the sun, and with the planets roll ? 
What boots through space's farthest bounds to roam ? 
If thou, man, a stranger art at home ? 

SECTION I. 
VERSIFICATION. 

As the study of versification is highly necessary to the pro- 
per appreciation of Poetical composition, it seems necessary 
to give the pupil some idea of the principles illustrative of its 
correctness : which, when perfectly chaste, is often found to 
be highly instructive and useful. 

The following, principally from Lindley Murray's Octavo 
Grammar, is thought to be as concise as the nature of the sub- 
ject will admit, in order to be properly understood ; much 
pleasure is therefore taken in commending it to the careful and 
diligent enquiry of those desiring to form an acquaintance with 
the rich and flowing strains of the Poetic Muse. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Versification is the art of expressing our thoughts in verse or 
lines adapted to poetic measure or meter. 

A verse or line in poetry, consists of a certain number of ac- 
cented or unaccented syllables, arranged according to the fixed 
rules for poetic measure. 

Rhyme is the similarity of sound in the last syllable of two 
or more successive lines or verses. Poetry of this sort is 
sometimes called Rhyme. 

Blank Verse is the name given to that species of poetry 
which is without rhyme. 

Poetic Feet are the small portions into which the line or verse 
is divided ; each of which consists of two or m,ore syllables com- 
bined according to accent; by means of which the voice, as it 
were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. 

Stanza is a combination of several verses or lines, varying ac- 
cording to the poet's fancy, and constituting a regular division 
of a poem or song. This is often incorrectly called verse. 

A Couplet or Distich consists of two verses or lines taken to- 
gether, whether rhyming with each other or not. 



PROSODY POETIC FBET. 293 

A Triplet consists of three lines rhyming together. 

Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse. "We 
shall treat of them separately. 

Scanning is the dividing of a line or verse into the feet of 
which it is composed 

OF POETIC FEET. 

A certain number of syllables connected, forms a foot. 
They are called feet, because it is by their aid, that the voice, 
as it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace ; 
and it is therefore necessary that the syllables, which mark 
this regular movement of the voice, should, in some manner, 
be distinguished from the others. This distinction was made 
among the ancient Romans, by dividing their syllables into long 
and short, and ascertaining their quantity by an exact propor- 
tion of time in sounding them ; the long being to the short as 
two to one ; the long syllables being thus the more important, 
marked the movement. In English, syllables are divided into 
accented and unaccented ; and the accented syllables, being as 
strongly distinguished from the unaccented, by the peculiar 
stress of the voice upon them, are equally capable of marking 
the movement, and pointing out the regular paces of the voice, 
as the long syllables were, by their quantity, among the 
Romans. 

When the feet are formed by an accent on the vowels, they 
are exactly of the same nature as the ancient feet, and have 
the same just quantity in their syllables. So that, in this 
respect, we have all that the ancients had, and something which 
they had not. We have, in fact, duplicates of each foot, yet 
with such a difference as to fit them for certain purposes, to be 
applied at our pleasure. 

Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself ; and 
it is upon the knowledge and right application of these powers, 
that the pleasure and effect of numbers, chiefly depend. 

All feet used in poetry, consist either of two or of three syl- 
lables ; and are reducable to eight kinds ; four of two 
syllables, and/owr of three syllables, as follows : 



Dissyllables, 


Try syllables. 


1 Trochee, — ^ 


5 A Dactyl, — ^ ^ 


2 An Iambus, ^ — 


6 An Amphibrach, — ~ — 


3 A Spondee, - - 


7 An Anapaestic, ^ w - 


4 A Pyrrhic. — — 


8 A Tribrach, ~ ~ ~ 



294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 . A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last un- 
accented ; as, Hateful, pettish. 

2. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last 
accented ; as, Betray, consist. 

3. A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, 
The pale moon. 

4. A Pyrrich has both the words or syllables unaccented ; 
as, on the tall tree. 

5. A Dactyl has the j£rs£ syllable accented, and the ta?o Za#er 
unaccented; as, Laborious, possible. 

6. An Amphibrach has thejtfrsZ and the last syllable unac- 
cented; as, Delightful, domestic. 

7. An Anapcestic has the taw j£rs£ syllables unaccented; and 
the Zas£ accented ; as, Contravene, Tntetrede. 

8. A Tribrach has aZ£ the syllables unaccented; as, num | era- 
big, con | querable. 

Some of these may be denominated principal feet, as pieces 
of poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. 
Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and Anapwst. The 
others may be termed secondary feet, because their chief use 
is to diversify the numbers, and improve the verse. 

We shall first explain the nature of the principal feet. 
Trochaic verse is of several kinds. 

1. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language consists of 
one Trochee and one long syllable ; as, 

Tumult | cease 
Sink to | peace. 
This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used 
on serious occasions. 

2. The second English form of the Trochaic consists of two 
feet, and is likewise so brief that it is rarely used for any very 
serious purpose ; as, 

O n the | mountain, 
By the | fountain. 

It sometimes contains two feet of Trochees, with one addi- 
tional long syllable ; as, 

In the | days of [ old 
Fables plainly told. 

3. The third species consists of three Trochees ; as, 

When our | hearts are | mourning. 
Or of three Trochees wtth an additional long syllable ; as, 



PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 295 

Restless I mortals | toil for | naught; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought ; 
Bliss, a native of the sky, 
Never wanders, mortals, try ; 
There you cannot seek in vain ; 
For, to seek her is to gain. 

4. The fourth Trochaic species consists of four Trochees ; 
as, 

Round us | roars the | tempest ( louder. 
This form may take an additional long syllable ; as, 

Idle | after | dinner | In his | chair, 

Sat a farmer, rudy, fat and fair. 
But this measure is very uncommon. 

5. The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncommon. It is 
composed of five Trochees ; as, 

All that | walk on | foot, or [ ride in | chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of six 
Trochees ; as, 

On a | mountain | stretch'd be | neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and view'd the rolling billow. 

This seems to be the longest Trochaic line our language 
admits. 

In all these Trochaic measures the accent is to be placed on 
the odd syllable. 

Iambic verse may be divided into several species, according to 
the number of feet or syllables of which they are composed. 

1 . The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an 
Iambus, with an additional short syllable ; as, 

Disdain | Tng. 

Complain | ing. 

Consent | ing. 

Repent j ing. 
"We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with 
in stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with the 
Amphibrach. 

2. The second form of the Iambic is also too short to be 
continued through any great number of fines. It consists of 
two Iambuses ; as, 



296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What place j is here ? 
What scenes | appear ? 
To me | the rose 
No Ion | ger glows. 
It sometimes takes, or may take an additional short syllable ; 

Upon | a moun j tain, 
Beside a fountain. 

3. The third form consists of three Iambuses ; as, 

In pi a | ces far ) or near, 
Or famous, or obscure, 
Where wholesome is the air, 
Or where the most impure ? 

It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable ; as, 

Our hearts | no Ion | g£r Ian | guish. 

4. The fourth is made up of four Iambuses ; as, 

And may | at last | my wea | ry age, 
Find out the place of hermitage. 

5. The fifth is made up of five Iambuses ; as, 

Be wise | t5-day, | 'tis mad | nSss to | defer; 

Next day the fatal precedent will plead ; 

Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 
This is called the heroic measure. In its simplest form, it 
consists of five Iambuses ; but by the admission of other feet, 
as Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests, &c, it is capable of many va- 
rieties* Indeed, most of the English common measures may 
be varied in the same way, as well as by the different positions 
of their pauses. 

6. The sixth form of our Iambus, is commonly called the 
Alexandrine measure. It consists of six Iambuses ; as, 

For thou | art but | of dust ; | be hum | ble and | be wise. 
The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme ; 
and when used sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an 
agreeable variety; as, 

The seas | shall waste, | the skies | In smoke | decay, 
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ; 
But fixed his word, his saving pow'r remains 
Thy realm forever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns. 



PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 297 

7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure, is 
made up of seven Iambuses ; as, 

The Lord | descend | gd from | above, j and bowed | the 
hea | vens high. 

This was anciently written in one line, but it is now usually 
written in two ; the first containing four feet, and the second, 
three; as, 

The" Lord | descend | Sd from | above, 
And bowed | the hea | vens high. 

Wh6n all 
My rls 



thy mer | cies, 6 | my God ! 
Tng soul | surveys, 
Transported with the view, I'm lost 
In wonder, love, and praise. 



In all these measures, the accent is to be placed on even syl- 
lables ; and every line, considered by itself, is, in general, more 
melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed. 

The Dactyl measure being very uncommon, we shall give 
only one example of one species of it, as, 

Brightest and | best of the j sons of the | morning, 
Dawn on our darkness and lend us thine aid, 

"A Dactylic verse scarcely ever ends with a dactyl. Some- 
times one long syllable is added, and sometimes a trochee." — 
Butler's Grammar, p. 194. 

Anapcestic verses are divided into several species. 
1. The shortest Anapaestic verse must be a single Anapaest ; 
as, 

But Tn vain, 

They complain. 

This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying the 
stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, we might 
make a Trochaic verse. And therefore the first and simplest 
form of our genuine Anapaestic verse is made up of two Ana- 
paests ; as, 

But his cou | rage 'gan fail 
For no arts could avail. 
This form admits of an additional short syllable ; as, 
Then his cou | rage 'gan fail | him, 
For no arts could avail him. 



298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The second species consists of three Anapaests ; as, 

ye woods, | spread your bran | ches apace ; 
To your deepest recesses I fly ; 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chase ; 
I would vanish from every eye. 

This is a very pleasing measure, and much used both in 
solemn and cheerful subjects. 

3. The third kind of the English Anapaestic, consists of four 
Anapaests ; as, 

M5y I go J vera my pas | sions with ab | solute sway ; 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 

This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end ; as, 

On the cold | cheek of death, | smiles and ro J s6s are 

blend | ing, 
And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb. 

The preceding are the different kinds of the principal feet, 
or poetic measurement, in the simplest forms. They are ca- 
pable of numerous variations, by the introduction of those feet 
with each other ; and by the admission of the secondary feet 
among them. 

We have observed that English verse is composed of feet 
formed by accent; and that when the accent falls on vowels, the feet 
are equivalent to those formed by quantity. That the student may 
clearly perceive this difference, we shall produce a specimen of 
each kind. 

O'er heaps of ruins stalk'd the stately hind. 

Here we see the accent is upon the vowel in each second syl- 
lable. In the following line we shall find the same Iambic 
movement, but formed by accent on consonants, except the last 
syllable. 

Then r'ustling, cr'ackling, cr'ashing, thunder down. 

Here the time of the short accented syllables, is compensated 
by a short pause at the end of each word to which they 
belong. 

SECONDARY FEET. 
We now proceed to show the manner in which poetry is 
varied and improved by the admission of secondary feet, into 
its composition. 



PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 299 

Murmuring | and with | him fled | the shades | of night. 
The first foot here is a Dactyl ; the rest are Iambics. 
O'er many | a froz | en, many | a firey | Alp. 
This line contains three Amphibraches mixed with Iambics ; 
Alp is Iambic by quantity. 

Innu | merable | before the Almighty's throne : 

Here, in the second foot, we find a Tribrach — 

See the bold youth strain up | the threat 'ning steep. 
In this line, the first foot is a Trochee ; the second, a genu- 
ine Spondee by quantity ; the third, a Spondee by accent. 

In the following line the first foot is a Pyrrhic ; the second, 
a Spondee. 

That on | weak wing | from far pursues your flight. 

From the preceding view of English versification, we may 
see what a copious stock of materials it possesses. For we 
are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet, in 
our heroic measure, but we have, as before observed, dupli- 
cates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in mea- 
sure, * and which makes different impressions on the ear ; an 
opulence peculiar to our language, and which may be the source 
of boundless variety. 

SECTION II. 
OF POETICAL PAUSES. 

There are two sorts of Pauses, one for sense, and one for 
melody, entirely distinct from each other. The former may be 
called sentential, the latter, harmoniac pause. 

The sentential pauses are those known to us by name of 
stops, and which have names given them, as, the comma, semi- 
colon, colon, and the period. 

The harmoniac pauses may be subdivided into the final 
pause, and the ccesural pause. 

These sometimes coincide with the sentential pause, and 
sometimes they have an independent state ; that is, they exist 
where there is no stop in the sense. 

* Measure signifies the proportion of time, both in sounds and pauses. 
Movement expresses the progressive order of sounds, whether from strong 
to weak ; from long to short, or vice versa. 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes the 
verse, and marks the measure : the ccesural pause divides the 
line into equal and unequal parts. 

The final pause preserves the melody, without interfering with 
the sense. For the pause itself perfectly marks the bounds of 
the meter ; and being made only by a suspension of the voice, 
not by any change of note, it can never affect the sense. This 
is not the only advantage gained to numbers, by this final pause 
or stop of suspension. It also prevents that monotony, that 
sameness of note at the end of lines, which, however pleasing 
to a rude, is disgusting to a delicate ear. For as this final pause 
has no particular note of its own, but always takes that which 
belongs to the preceding note, it changes continually with the 
matter, and is as various as the sense. It is the final pause 
which alone, on many occasions, marks the difference between 
prose and verse ; this will be evident from the following arrange- 
ment of a few poetical lines. To wit, 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden 
tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and all 
our woe, with loss of Eden, till one greater man restore us, and 
regain the blissful seat, sing heavenly muse !" m 

A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this is 
verse ; but would take it for poetical prose. By properly ad- 
justing the final pause, we shall restore the passage to its true 
state of verse. To wit, 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste, 
Brought death into our world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing heavenly Muse !" . 
These examples show the necessity of reading blank verse, 
in such a manner, as to make every line sensible to the ear ; for 
what is the use of melody, or for what end has the poet com- 
posed in verse, if, in reading his lines, we suppress his numbers, 
by omitting the final pause ; and degrade them, by our pronun- 
ciation, into mere prose ? 

The ccesural pause is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth 
syllable of heroic verse. 

On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot ; as, 
The silver eel" in shining volumes roll'd, 
The yellow carp " in scales bedropp'd with gold. 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 301 

On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot ; as, 
Round broken columns" clasping ivy twin'd 
O'er heaps of ruin" stalked the stately hind. 

On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third foot; as, 
O say what stranger cause" yet unexplor'd, 
Could make the gentle belle" reject her lord. 

A line may be divided into three portions, by two caesuras ; 

Outstretch 'd he lay" on the cold ground" and oft' 
Look'd up to heav'n. 
There is another mode of dividing lines, well suited to the 
nature of couplet, by introducing semi-pauses, which divide the 
line into four pauses. This semi-pause may be called a demi- 
cmura. The following lines admit of, and exemplify it. 
"Glows' while he reads" but trembles' as he writes." 
"Reason's' the cord" but passion' is the gale." 
" Rides' in the whirlwind" and directs' the storm." 

" Warms' in the sun" refreshes' in the breeze, 

Glows' in the stars" and blossoms' in the trees ; 

Lives' through all life" extends' through all extent, 

Spreads' undivided" operates' unspent." 
The following poetic effusion is truly of a singular character. 
It contains seventy-two separate Iambic feet, without interme- 
diate points, doubtless, that it may be read in a variety of ways ; 
whereas, if it were punctuated, the poet's intention would be 
measurably intercepted. It will also be observed that the 
entire piece consists of monosyllables. 

TO MART ANN. 

"Your face Your tongue Your wit 

So fair So sweet So sharp 

First bent Then drew Then hit 

Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart 

Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart 

To like To learn To love 

Your face Your tongue Your wit 

Doth lead Doth teach Doth move 

Your face Your tongue Your wit 

With beams With sound With art 

Doth blind Doth charm Doth rule 

Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart 



302 

Mine eye 
With life 

Your face 
Doth feed 

face 

With frowns 
Wrong not 

Mine eye 

This eye 
Shall joy 

Your face 
To serve 



ENGLISH G RAMMAR , 

Mine ear 
With hope 

Your tongue 
Doth feast 

O tongue 
With check 

Vex not 
Mine ear 

This ear 

Shall bend 
Your tongue 

To trust 



Mine heart 
With skill 

Your wit 
Doth fill 

wit 

With smart 
Wound not 

Mine heart 

This heart 
Shall swear 

Your wit 
To fear." 



Anonymous : Sundry American Newspapers, 

In 1849. 

RECAPITULATION" 
OF POETIC MEASUREMENT. 

The following may be found a valuable aid in fixing more 
indelibly upon the mind of the pupil, the nature and merits of 
versification. 

In the process of reviewal, frequent reference should be had 
to the preceding illustrations. 

I. Trochaic Verse. 
The accent is on the first, third, fifth, &c, syllables. 

1. One foot, or Monometer ; as, 

Staying. 
Playing. 

2. Two Feet, or Dimeter ; as, 

Rich the | treasure, 
Sweet the | pleasure. 

3. Three Feet, or Trimeter ; as, 

Go where | glory | waits thee 
But where | fame e | lates thee, 

4. Foui Feet, or Tetrameter ; as, 

Maids are | sitting | by the | fountain, 
Bright the | moon o'er | yonder | mountain. 



PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 303 

5. Five Feet, or Pentameter ; as, 

In the | dark, and | gloomy | valley, 
Satyrs | by the | brooklet, | love to | dally. 

6. Six Feet, or Hexameter ; as, 

On a | moutam | fetretch'd be | neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay & | shepherd | swain and | viewed the | billow. 

To each of these a long syllable may be added ; constituting 
it hypercatalectic, or hypermeter ; thus, — 

1. Tumult cease, 
Sink to peace. 

2. in the | days of | old, 
Fables plainly | told. 

3. Restless | mortals | toil for | naught, 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought. 

4. Idle | after | dinner, | in his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer, | rudy, | fat, and | fair. 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit! | bird thou | never | wert, 
That from | heaven, or | near it, | pourest | thy full j 

heart. 

6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting over | Wa- 

terloo. 
Cocks had | sung their | earliest | greeting, | faint 
and | low they | crew. 
In the last two forms, each line is usually divided into 
two ; thus, — 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit ! 

Bird thou | never | wert ; &c. 

6. Night and morning | were at | meeting, 

Over | Water | loo ; &c. 
Trochaic verse, with an additional long syllable at the end, is 
the same as Iambic, wanting a short syllable at the beginning. 

II. Iambic Feet. 
The accent is on the second, fourth, sixth, dbc, syllables. 

1 . One Foot, or Manometer ; as, 

Tis sweet 
To meet. 

2. Two Feet, or Dimeter ; as, 

With thee | we* rise, 
With thee J we reign. 



304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Three Feet, or Trimeter ; as. 

In pla | ces far | or near, 
Or fa | mous or | obscure. 

4. Four Feet, or Tetrameter; as, 

How sleep | the brave, (who sink | to rest, 
By all | their coun J try's wish | es blest. 

5. Five Feet, or Pentameter ; as, 

For me | your trl | buta | ry stores | combine ; 
Crea | tion's | heir, the world, | the world, | is mine. 

6. Six Feet, or Hexameter ; as, 

His heart | is sad, | his hope | is gone, | his light | is 

passed ; 
He sits | and mourns, j in si | lent grief, | the lin | gering 

day. 

7. Seven Feet, or Heptameter ; as, 

When all | thy mer | ciSs, | my God, | my rls [ ing 

soul | surveys, 
Transport | ed with | the view, | I'm lost, | in won | der, 

love, | and praise. 

Each of these kinds of Iambic verse may have an additional 
short syllable, and so be called Iambic Hypermeter ; as, 

1. Disdain | ing. 

2. Upon | a moun | tarn. 

3. When on her Mak | er's bo | som. 

4. But hail, thou god | dess, sage | and ho | ly. 

5. What slen | der youth | bedewed | with liq | uid o [ dor. 

6. Whose front | can brave | the storm, | but will | not 

rear | the flow j gr. 

7. To scat | ter o'er | Lis path | of fame, | bright hues J of 

gem | like show | ers. 

It often happens that a Trochee, or sometimes a Spondee, is 
admitted in place of the first foot ; this gives a pleasing variety 
to the verse ; as, 

Plannets | and suns | run law | less through | the sky. 
Fierce, har j dy, proud | incon j scious free | dom bold. 

Iambic Monometer, Dimeter, and Trimeter, Of these meters, 
there is no regular form, but they are sometimes introduced 
into Stanzas. 



PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 305 

Iambic Tetrameter. • This may extend through a considerable 
number of verses. 

Iambic Pentameter. Iambic verse of ^.ve feet is called Heroic 
verse. Such is "Milton's Paradise Lost," &c. By the ad- 
mission of Trochees, Anapcests, &c, in certain places, it is ca- 
pable of many varieties. 

Iambic Hexameter. A verse of six feet is called an Alex- 
andrine. 

The Elegiac Stanza consists of four Pentameter lines, rhym- 
ing alternately ; as, 

The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part | mg day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

The Spenserian Stanza (which takes its name from the Poet 
Spenser) consists of eight Pentameters, or Heroic verses, fol- 
lowed by one Hexameter or Alexandrine verse. This is the 
stanza in which the "Fairie Queen " is written. 

Iambic Hep tameter. Iambic verses of seven feet, formerly 
written in one line, are now commonly divided into two lines, 
one of four, and one of three feet ; as, 

When all | thy mer | cies | my God, 

My ris | ing soul | surveys, 
Transport | ed with | the view, | I'm lost, 

In won | der, love, | and praise. 

This is called common meter. Stanzas having three feet in 
the first, second, and fourth lines, and four in the third, ore 
called short meter ; and those consisting of four lines, each con- 
taining four feet, are called long meter. 

III. Anapjestic Verse. 

The pure Anapaestic verse has the accent on every third syl- 
lable. 

1 . One Foot, or Monometer ; as, 

But too far, 
Each proud star. 

2. Two Feet, or Dimeter; as, 

But his cou | rage 'ga*n fail 
For no arts | could avail. 
13* 



306 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Three Feet, or Trimeter ; as, 

y£ woods, f spread your bran | ch£s Space ; 
To your deep | est reces | ses I fly ; 

1 would hide | with the beasts | of the chase ; 
I would van | ish from ev | ery eye. 

4. Four Feet, or Tetrameter ; as, 

May I gov | era my pas | sions with ab | solute sway ; 
And grow wi | ser and bet | ter as life | wears away. 

Of these, the^rs^ is ambiguous, for by placing the accent on 
the first syllable, it becomes a Trochaic Monameter Hypermeter, 
The second sometimes admits an additional short syllable at 
the end : as, 

On th6 road | by the val | ley, 

As he wan | dered lament | Tng ; 
To the green | of the for | est, 
He returned ] home repent | Tng. 

Tl# third is a very pleasing measure, and is much used both 
in solemn and cheerful subjects, but it seldom takes an addi- 
tional syllable. 

The fourth or Tetrameter, admits an additional syllable, 
which often has a pleasing effect ; as, 

On the warm j cheek o*f youth | smiles 2nd ro | ses are 
blend | Ing. 

IV. Dactylic Verse. 
The accent is on the first syllable. 

1. One Foot, or Mbnometer; as, 

Fearfully. 
Tearfully. 

2. Two Feet, or Dimeter ; as. 

Free from sa | tiety, 
Care and anx j iety. 
Charms in va | riety 
Fall to his | share. 

3. Three Feet, or Trimeter ; as, 

Wearing 5 | way In his | youthftilness, 
Loveliness, | beauty and | truthfulness. 



PROSODT VERSIFICATION. 307 

Each of these sometimes takes an additional long syllable, and 
so becomes Hypermeter ; as, 

1. Over a | mead, 
Spurring his | steed. 

2. Covered with J snow was the | vale, 
Sad was the | shriek of the | gale, 
When to the | night, wolf | wail 
Rose to the | skies — to the | skies. 

3. Time, it has | pass'd, and the | lady is | pale 
Pale as the | lily that | lolls on the | gale. 

By combining these kinds, examples of Tetrameter, Pentame- 
ter, and even Hexameter are obtained ; but they are seldom 
used. 

A Dactyl verse seldom ends with a Dactyl ; it more com- 
monly adds one long syllable, sometimes a Trochee ; as, 

Brightest and | best of the | sons of the | morning, 
Dawn on our | darkness and | lend us your | aid. 
The following is an example of Dactyls and Spondees alter- 
nately ; 

Green in the | wild wood | proudly the | tall tree | looks 

on the | brown plain. 
The following is an example of pure Dactyl Hexameter ; 
6v€r the | valley, with | speed like the | wind, all the | 
steeds were a | galloping. 

MIXED VERSES. 

Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iambic, 
for example, sometimes admits other feet into the lines, parti- 
cularly at the beginning, as has been already noticed. The 
following are examples of Iambic lines, with different feet intro- 
duced ; 

Trochee, — Prophet | of plagues | forev | er bod J ing ill ! 
Dactyl — Murmuring, | and with | him fled | the shades j of 

night. 
Anapcest, — Before | all tern | pies the up | right heart | and 

pure. 
Pyrrhic. — Brought death | Tnt5 | the world | and all | our 

woe. 
Tribrach, — And thun | ders down | impe | ttiotis t<5 | the 
plain. 



308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In Iambic verse, the initial short syllable is sometimes omit- 
ted ; and the verse becomes Trochaic with an additional long 
syllable. 

In Trochaic verse, the initial long syllable is sometimes 
omitted, and the line becomes Iambic with an additional short 
syllable. 

If the two short syllables are omitted at the beginning of an 
Anapcestic line, it becomes Dactylic with a long syllable. So, 

If the initial long syllable is omitted in a Dactylic verse, it 
becomes Anapcestic with two short syllables added. 

A pleasing movement is introduced by intermingling lam- 
buses and Anapaests, as in the following lines ; 

I come, | I come ! | y6 have calPd | me long ; 
I come | o'er the moun | tains with light | and song ! 
Ye may trace | my steps j o'er the* wak | SnTng earth, 
By the winds | which tell | of the vT | olets birth, 
By the prim | rose stars | of the sha | dowy grass, 
By the green | leaves op | enlng | as I pass. 

(See Bullions' Grammar, pp. £16, 221.) 



In conclusion, I would further say to the pupil, that by a little 
careful study of the foregoing, you will be easily led to appre- 
hend the nature, and appreciate the advantages of poetic mea- 
surement : without a knowledge of which, at least to some rea- 
sonable extent, both its elegance and beauties will be, to you, 
forever lost. The blind might, indeed, admire the fragrance 
of the rose, but in the misroscopic mirror to behold its beauties 
in contrast with its kindred species, along with the various and 
variegated flowers of the garden and the forest, would be more 
enchanting than if described by a thousand tongues : so indeed, 
and to no small extent, is it with a mind properly attuned to the 
rapturous melodies of the poet's lyre, which, when moved upon 
by the inspiring muse of song, finds out a chord, and displays, 
in harmonious numbers, sounds of genuine sweetness, operat- 
ing in countless varieties as a solace in the despondencies of 
hope, and a comforter amidst the embittering ills of toil and 
care. 

For an individual whose mind is uncultivated in the arts of 
language, literal, figurative and practical, to undertake, with the 



PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 809 

expectation of success, to read, so as to appreciate properly, 
the works of Byron, Pope, Shakespeare, Milton, Young, Pollock, 
Homer, and above all, the Sacred Scriptures, would be to walk 
without feet, to fly without wings ; or more properly, as the 
blind entering a city, the dumb at a ball, or the deaf at court ; 
for the beauties and benefits calculated to interest and instruct, 
are unseen, unspoken, unheard; and consequently unappre- 
ciated. The Bible, "the book of God's inspiration," remains 
a sealed book to thousands, and so will probably remain to 
thousands more, simply for the want of proper intellectual de- 
velopement to understand and appreciate the portion adapted 
to finite minds, and calculated to point out to man the road to 
happiness and peace. 

Besides these, as inducements to mental culture, there are 
thousands of reasons why we should be industrious in the accu- 
mulation of knowledge, and not a single reason why we should 
fail or refuse to make the necessary application according to the 
time and means within our power. One of the wisest of men 
says, that its " price is above that of rubies ;" " beyond all 
price ;" "for it is the principal thing" 

Of all the refinements of the age there is none equal in im- 
portance to that of correct language ; through it, we acquire 
knowledge ; it enters into every department of social life ; it 
qualifies us for business transactions ; commends us to the 
hospitality of strangers ; enables us properly to deport our- 
selves in our intercourse with mankind ; and it commands the 
respect of all. By it, in it, and through it, we think, reason, de- 
termine, and communicate ; as well as receive, through it, the 
communications of others. In a word, knotvledge is the de- 
pository or treasure -house of all our worth ; if in it we are rich, 
we are rich in reality ; for riches here, are the true riches, that 
cannot be counterfeited, and are current in every clime ; but if 
in it we are poor, we are really poor, for poverty here is 
poverty indeed. And if we neglect to use the means necessary 
for mental improvement, and thereby entail upon our minds a 
state of ignorance, or mental darkness, we can but reasonably 
expect that disappointment and remorse will be our unhappy 
lot, during a life of toil and self-reproach. In youth, rich in 
the opportunities for mental application, but if these opportuni- 
ties pass unheeded, the poverty of the mind, in mature age, 
will, from the reflection, add only vexation and sorrow to its 
destitution : and then our exit to the next, a world of wisdom, 



310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

can only tell the tale of sadness at the thought of having mis- 
improved the golden opportunity, — 

Procrastination is the Thief of Time. 

"Be wise to-day ; His madness to defer ; 
Next day, the fatal precedent will plead ; 
Thus on, till Wisdom is pushed quite out of life !" 

May these friendly hints prove eventually to be as Solomon 
says of "words fitly spoken" that they are as "Apples of gold 
in pictures of silver* * 



THE END. 



INDEX. 



Preface, 

Address to the Pupil, 

Introduction, - 



3 

6 

11 



PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Alphabet, Division of Letters, 
Syllables, Rules for, - 

Words, Derivative and Primative, - 
Spelling, Rules for, - 

PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

Modification, and Derivation, 
The Ten parts of speech, 

* " " Defined, 

Synopsis or Office of words, - 
Epitome of the Ten Parts of Speech, 
The Ten Parts of Speech Classed, 

Noun, Different Bands, 

Gender Defined, <fca, - 

Person, " " 

Number, " " 

Case " « 

Article, how used, - 

Adjective, "- 

Comparison of Adjectives, 

Numeral Adjectives, - 

Pronoun, - 

Personal Pronoun, - - . 

Declension of Personal Pronouns, 

Relative Pronouns, > 

Declension of Relative Pronouns, 



14 
15 
17 
17 



20 
21 
21, 23 
23 
24 
25 
26 

• 27, 30 
30 

■31, 34 
34, 37 

37, 38 

38, 42 

39, 41 
42 
43 

43, 46 

45, 46 

*46, 50 

48 



311 



312 INDEX. 

The Compound Relative Pronoun, 
What, variously used, 
Adjective Pronouns, 
Possessive, " 
Indefinite, " - 
Demonstrative," - 
Distributive, " - 
Verb, 

Different kinds of verbs, - 
Active Verbs, 

Mental and Physical Actions, 
Passive Verbs, - - 

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, - 

Neuter Verb, . - - - ■ 

Regular and Irregular Verbs, 
Defective Verbs, - - 

Number and Person of Verbs, - 
Moods and Tenses of Verbs, - 
Auxiliary and Compound Verbs, - 
Conjugation of Verbs, - 

Neuter Verb To Be, Conjugated, - 
Participles of the Verb To be, 
The Active Verb To Have; conjugated, - 
Participles of the Verb To Have, 
The Active Verb To Love, conjugated, 
Formation of Tenses, - - 

Participles of the Verb, To Love, - 
Passive Verb, To Be Loved, conjugated, 
Participles of the Verb, To Be Loved, 
Formation of Passive Participles, - 

Auxiliary Verbs Conjugated, 
Defective Verbs, - - - 

Shall and Will, Use of, - 
Should and Would, Use of, - - . 

Directions for the Infinitive Mood, 
Remarks on the Classification of Verbs, and) 
the Neuter Verb To Be, - J 

List of Irregular Verbs, 
Participle, 

Adverb, - - - - 

Preposition, 
Terms of Relation, 
Adjuncts, Regimen, - - - 113, 114 



* 


48 


48, 


50 


- 


50 




51 


- 


hi 




52 


- 


52 


53, 


108 


- 


53 




53 


- 


53 


54, 


96 


54, 


95 




55 


55, 


56 


56, 


51 


57, 


58 


58, 


63 


63, 


64 


64 3 


90 


66 : 


,71. 




71 


71, 


74 




74 


75, 


78 


78, 


81 


81, 


82 


.'.8*, 


85 


81, 


82 


86, 


87 


87, 


89 




90 


91, 


, 93 


93, 


94 


- 


94 


96, 


103 


103, 


108 


108, 


110 


110, 


112 


112, 


118 




112 



INDEX. 313 

•X'he Influence of Adjuncts, 

List of Prepositions, - 

Compound Prepositions, 
Conjunction, - 

Adverbial Conjunctions, 
Interjection, - 

Words differently used, 

PART III.— SYNTAX. 

Sentences and Phrases, - 

Examples, - - 

Subject and Predicate, - 

Grammatical or Logical, ) 
Simple or Compound, \ 

Modified Subject, 

Modifying Words Modified, - 

Predicate, Simple or Compound, - 

Modified Predicate, 

Sentences, Simple or Compound, - 

Clauses, Dependent or Independent, 

Abridged Propositions, 
The Predicate, Copula and Attribute, 

Explanation of Terms, 

Directions for Logical Parsing, 

General Principles, ... 

Models of Analysis, ... 

Order and Directions for Parsing, 

Uses and Offices of words, 

Concord and Government, 

Rules of Syntax, - 

Verb's agreement with its Nominative Case, 

Infinitive in the Nominative case, 

Case Independent and absolute, - 

Nouns in Apposition, - - (36) 

Nouns and Pronouns joined by Copulative Conjunction, 160 
" « " Disjunctive " 161 

Nouns of Multitude, - - - - 162 

Pronouns and their Antecedents, &c, - - 163,167 

The Pronoun It variously used, - - 167 

Case of Relative Pronouns, • - • 168 

Relative preceeded by different Nominatives, - 169 

Adjective Pronouns, - - - - 170 

14 



-114, 


116 




116 


- 


117 


118, 


120 


- 119, 


120 


120, 


122 


- 123, 


124 


125, 


127 


- 126, 


127 


- 


127 


* 


127 


« 


128 


- 


129 


- 


*29 


• 


130 


- 


130 


- 


131 


- 132, 


134 


134, 


136 


- 


136 


- 


137 


- 


137 


138, 


149 


- 149, 


153 


153, 


156 


- 


158 


158, 


213 


- 


158 


- 


159 


- 


159 


) 181, 


183 



314 INDEX. 

Adjectives, how used, - - - -171, 174 

Article, how used, - - - 174, 176 

Possessive Case of Nouns, - 176, 179 

Verbs, Active Transitive, - 179, 183 

Government of the Infinitive Mood, - - 183, 186 

Participles and their Government, - - 186, 190 
Adverbs, ------ 191, 192 

Prepositions, - - - - - 193, 197 

Idioms and Anomalies, - - - - 196 

Conjunctions, Moods, Tenses and Cases, - 197, 198 

" Requiring Subjunctive Mood, - 199, 202 

Corresponding Conjunctions, - - - - 201 

Case following as, than, or but, - - - 203, 206 

Ellipsis of the Parts of Speech, - - 206, 211 

Rules of Concord and Government, - -211, 212 

The Interjection, - - - - 212 

Application of the Rules of Syntax, - -213, 215 

Directions for Parsing, - - - 215, 216 

Example Parsed, - - - - - 216, 218 

Exercises in Parsing, - 218,224 

General Rule, 223 

Promiscuous Exercises. - 232, 235 

Rules of Syntax Illustrated, - - - 236, 246 
Promiscuous Exercises, ... 246, 249 

Directions for Parsing in Poetry, - - -2 49, 252 

Exercises in Poetry, - 252, 269 

SUBJECTS. 

Education, - 252 

The Goodness of Providence, - - 253 

Virtue the Guardian of youth, - - . ^253 

Gratitude, - - - - 253 

Virtuous Elevation, - - - - 255 

Hope, .... 255 
The Tear of Sympathy, .... 255 

True Greatness, - - - - 255 

Secret Virtue, - - - - - 256 

Sense and Modesty contrasted, - - 256 

The Prize of Virtue, - - - - 256 

Trust in Providence Recommended, - - 256 

Virtuous Activity, - - - - 257 

Fame, - - - 257 



INDEX. 

Solitude, - 

Moderate Views and Aims Recommended, 
The Golden Mein, - 

Attachment to Life, - 
The Security of Virtue, ... 
Beneficence its own Reward, - 
Virtue the Best Treasure, - 
Contemplation, - - 

Pleasures of Piety, ... 

Nothing formed in Vain, 
On Pride, - 

Selfishness Reprored, - - 

The Pleasures and Benefits of an improved and) 
well-directed Imagination, j* 

The Creation Required to Praise its Author, - 
A Morning Hymn, ... 

Delight in God only, - 



315 

- 257 
257 

- 258 
258 

- 258 
258 

- 259 
259 

- 260 
260 

- 261 
261 

- 263 

264 

- 266 
268 



PART IV.— PROSODY. 



Accent, Quantity, 

Emphasis, Pause and Tone, 

Punctuation, 

The Comma, Special Rules for, 

Semicolon, Special Rules, • 

Colon, Special Rules, - 

Period, 

Interrogation, - 
Other Characters used in writing, 
Reference and Notation Marks, 
Directions for using Capital Letters 

Figures of Orthography, 
" " Etymology, 
" " Syntax, - 

Pleonasm, Syllepsis, Ennellage, <&c. 
Figures of Rhetoric, 
Poetic License, - 

Versification, 
Definitions 

Of Poetical Feet, &c, 
Of Poetical Pauses, 
Recapitulation of Poetical Measurement, 
Concluding Address, 



- 270 
271 

• 271 
272, 274 

274, 275 

275, 276 

- 276 
277 

277, 279 
279 

- 279 
280 

- 280 
281 

- 282 
283 

285, 292 
292 

• 292 
293, 299 
299, 301 
302, 308 

- 308 



TESTIMONIALS. 

{From S. L. Wilkinson.) 

Davidson Co, Tenn., April 13th, 1852. 
Having examined the manuscript of Mr. Puckett's Catechism of English Grammar, 
I am persuaded that the plan of the work is a good one, and that it will doubtless 
prove to be a useful manual in the hands of both the Pupils and Teachers. 

. ,, S.L. Wilkinson. 

(From Dr. William GL Anderson, M. D.) 

April 22d, 1852 
I have examined partially the manuscript of Mr. Puckett's Principles of English 
Grammar, and consider it a first rate work on a most important subject. 

The design of the work has been to rid the study of the Grammar of the English 
language of much superfluous matter, calculated more to embarras and perplex the 
mind of the learner, than to clearly elucidate the principles of the science of the 

a Mr. a Puckett having taught the Grammar of the English language for seven years, 
with the approbation of the most approved teachers, may be well supposed to 
possess an extensive knowledge of his subject. He communicates his precise ideas 
in a style remarkable for its clearness and simplicity, on account of which his 
work will doubtless commend itself to the careful consideration of both Teachers 
and Pupils, by whom alone it can be properly appreciated. 

- Wm. G. Anderson, M. D. 

(From Dr. Campbell Slayden, M. D.) 

Davidson Co., Tenn., April 22d, 1852. 

Having partially examined the manuscript of Mr. E. B. Puckett's work upon 

English Grammar, I heartily concur in opinion with Dr. Wm. G. Anderson, and 

Mr. S. L. Wilkinson, as set forth in the preceding certificates in regard to the same, 

and that in the hands of both learners and teachers it will be found a valuable aid. 

Campbell Slayden, M. D. 

(From the Rev. M. M. Henkle, D. D.) 

Nashville, July 31st, 1852. 
Having examined the plan and principles of Puckett's Grammar, in a cursory 
way, I am inclined to regard it more perfect than any other grammar I have 
examined, in perspicuity, in naturalness of classification, and in accurate philolo- 
gical analysis, and therefore consider it worthy of the patronage of the public. 

Mt ^ Henkle, D. D. 

(From J. M. Mayo.) 

Davidson Co., Tenn., August 28th, 1852. 
Having very briefly examined Mr. Puckett's System of the English Grammar, I 
cannot hesitate in giving it my approbation, and I cheerfully recommend it to others 
as a work comprising much in a little, and worthy of the patronage of Teachers 
and Pupils, for whose use it is designed, and by whom it cannot fail to be highly 
appreciated. J. M. Mayo. 

(From S. Y. Caldwell.) 

Williamson Co,. Tenn., July 25th, 1852. 
From a partial examination of Mr. E. B. Puckett's work upon English Grammar, 
I take pleasure in expressing the conviction that it will prove a valuable addition to 
our standaid works, and tend, as I hope, greatly to diffuse that practical knowledge 
of our language, the want of which is every where to be observed. 

S. Y. Caldwell. 

(From the Rev. J. B. McFerrin, D. D.) 

Nashville, July 31st, 1852. 
I have not had time to examine E. B. Puckett's System of Grammar, only very 
partially, but I have the opinion of many judges who highly approve of it and who 
recommend it. He has been engaged in teaching for years in this city and county, 
and is generally very much approved. J. B. McFerrin, D. D. 



TESTIMONIALS. 

{From Dr. Green J. Simmons, M. D.) 

Having partially examined the work on English Grammar, by Mr. E. B. Puckett, 
I am prepared to accord to it my unqualified approbation as an elementary work. 
It affords facilities to the young mind not to be found in many works of the kind, 
and equal to any that has preceded it on that subject. The force and plainness of 
its illustrations will enable one of ordinary intellect to acquire an accurate know- 
ledge of his vernacular tongue without the aid of a teacher ; thus placing this valua- 
ble acquirement within the reach of all, however limited their pecuniary means 
may be, who will apply themselves to its study. 

Given under my hand this 14th September, 1852. 

Green J. Simmons, M. D. 

[From the Rev. Francis H. Davis.) 

Williamson Co., Tenn., £pril2Qth, 1852. 
Having partially examined Mr. E. B. Puckett's " Principles of English Grammar, 
plainly illustrated by a series of familiar questions and answers," I can cheerfully 
recommend it to teachers and others desirous of obtaining a knowledge of English 
Grammar, as being well calculated to facilitate the progress of pupils ; and to give 
them a more thorough acquaintance with the principles of that science than any 
other work, comprising the same quantity of matter, within my knowledge. 

Francis H. Davis. 

(From Dr. M. T. Byrn, M. D.) 

Williamson Co,, Tenn., Map 1st, 1852. 
Havingjpartially examined Mr. E. B. Puckett's manuscript of English Grammar, 
I unhesitatingly say I believe it to be the most familiar and systematic plan that I 
have seen. I most cheerfully recommend it to all who wish to acquire a knowledge 
of the English language, as it is familiarly illustrated by a series of questions and 
answers systematically arranged and well adapted to the capacity of learners, and 
Will also prove to be a valuable aid as a reference book in the hands of Teachers. 

M. T. Byrn, M. D 

(From Dr. William Dawson D orris, M. D.) 

Nashville, November 10th, 1852. 
Having examined Mr. E. B. Puckett's System of English Grammar, I accord to it 
my entire approbation, not only as an elementary work but as containing a vast deal 
of highly important Grammatical information, not to be found in any other work 
that 1 have seen, besides which I am proud to see that the plan of the work is such 
that without the aid of a teacher, a youth of ordinary capacity, however destitute 
of pecuniary means, may, in a reasonable time, by self-application, obtain a correct 
and extensive knowledge of this useful branch of education. And I also take 
pleasure -in saying that 1 have no doubt that the work will prove a useful manual in 
the hands of Teachers. William Dawson Dorris, M. D. 



(From Joseph Johnson.) 

Nashville, Tenn., May 1st, 1852. 
Having examined a work in manuscript entitled the "Principles of the English 
Grammar, plainly illustrated by a series of familiar questions and answers," I unhes- 
itatingly pronounce it the best work I have seen on the subject. Mr. Puckett is a 
popular and successful Teacher in this and the adjoining counties. In the work he 
has happily given the principles of the system that he teaches. Making what is 
generally, to the pupil, a dry and uninteresting study, one of deep interest and 
attention. To the private learner the work will be invaluable ; whilst the Teacher 
will be greatly benefitted by it as a valuable text book. Joseph Johnson. 



(From Charles T. Lewis.) 

Hillseorough, Williamson Co., Tenn., May 30tA, 1852 
Mr. E. B. Puckett has shown me a copy of his treatise of questions and answers 
on English Grammar, and, as far as I am able to judge, I accord to it my approba- 
tion, believing that simplicity and brevity should characterize all our standard 
works. Charles T. Lewis. 



TESTIMONIALS. 

(From the Rev. A. L. P. Green, D. D.) 

Nashville, December 30fA, 1852. 
{To all whom it may concern.) 
I have taken some pains in looking over the plan for a new Grammar, devised by 
the bearer, my friend and neighbor Rev. E. B. Puckett, and take pleasure in recom- 
mending the work to School Teachers, and all persons who are interested in the 
education of the youth of the country, as one of the very best plans that I have seen, 
and believe that it aught to succeed. A. L. P. Green, D. D. 



(From the Rev. W. P. Strickland, A. M.) 

Cincinnati, Ohio, January Hth, 1S53, 
The Rev. E. B. Puckett has shown me a manuscript of an English Grammar in 
which the principles of the English language are familiarly illustrated by a series of 
questions. and answers. The work is designed for Teachers and private scholars, 
and is, according to the judgment I have been able to form, admirably adapted to 
the object designed by the author. Among the multiplicity of Grammars with 
which the country has been flooded, of greater or less merit, since the days of 
Murray, I know of none that is superior. W. P. Strickland, A. M. 



(From the Rev. R. A. Lapsby.) 

Nashville, Tenn. 
I have, to some extent, examined the manuscript of Rev. E. B. Puckett's English 
Grammar, and consider the work a judicious illustration of the principles of the 
English language as they were laid down by Murray in his large Grammar. 

R. A. Lapsby, A. M., D. D. 

(From Prof. Thomas B. Hatch.) 

Washington Institute, Davidson Co., Tenn., Dec. 31st, 1S52. 
(To all whom it may concern.) 
Having examined, to some extent, a work on English Grammar, by Rev. E. B. 
Puckett, I take pleasure in saying that I consider it extremely well adapted to aid 
the learner in obtaining a thorough knowledge of the English language. The plan 
needs no recommendation, as it is generally acknowledged as the best} and in 
regard to the execution, it is sufficient for those who are experienced in teaching 
to know, that the author has been almost wholly engaged in teaching it for many- 
years. Thos. B. Hatch, A. B., Prof, of Nat. Sciences, &c. 

. Washington Institute 

(From the Rev. John P. Campbell.) 

Nashville, Tenn., November 12th, 1852. 
Mr. E. B. Puckett, — Respected Sir: — I have taken some time and pains to 
examine your Grammar, and take great pleasure in recommending it as the best 
adapted to schools and private learners of any work 1 have seen. The plan of it 
must meet with universal acceptation. I am yours, 

Most Respectfully, &c., 

John P. Campbell, D. D. 

(From the Rev. Joseph Cross.) 

Nashville, Tenn., September 18th, 1852. 
I have examined cursorily a manuscript English Grammar by Mr. Puckett, and 
it affords me pleasure to state that I deem it an excellent work, and well adapted 
to the purpose of instruction in the English language. Jos. Cross, D. D. 



(From Alfred Hume, A. M.) 

Nashville, Tenn., October lGth, 1852. 
I entirely concur in the above certificate of the Rev. Dr. Cross, as to the merits 
of Mr. Puckett's Grammar. — — Alfred Hume, A. M. 

(From Nathaniel Cross.) 

Nashville, Tenn., October lGth, 1852. 
Mr. Puckett has explained to me his system of English Grammar, and I concur in 
the above testimonials concerning it. Nathaniel Cross, A. M. 

Late Professor of the Nashville University. 






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